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The Reformation
Ch. 13: Reformations in Religion
Erasmus and Luther: 1500-1517
Erasmus
• Combined humanism with
Christianity (Platonist)
• Printing press enabled him to be
the first writer to make a living as
such
• Enchiridion: two versions of
Christianity
– Formal, ritualistic, “for show”
– Spiritual, not concerned with “silly
little ceremonies”
• Novum Testamentum Omne: 3
translations in Latin and Greek –
first time and made possible
vernacular translations to follow
Luther (1483-1546)
• “Erasmus laid the egg that
Luther hatched”
• Augustinian monk, taught at
University of Wittenberg in
Saxony
The Indulgences Controversy
• Pope Leo X needed money for St.
Peter’s Basilica
• Practice of simony: selling church
offices
• Albrecht of Brandenburg, a
pluralist (held multiple
bishoprics) also needed money
(debt)
• Leo and Albrecht deal: Albrecht
borrows money from Fuggers to
get bishopric from Leo. Leo
renews practice of indulgences to
fund basilica.
• Albrecht allows indulgence
salesmen and proceeds split
between pope and Fuggers
• Indulgences:
– Medieval theology: pray for friends
& family here and now and in
Heaven
– Those that are in Purgatory or Hell
because failed to repent?
– Indulgences! Can reduce or remove
sin (Tetzel)
Johann Tetzel, 1517
• Under papal authority,
selling plenary indulgences
in return for monetary
“donations”
• “When the coin in the coffer
rings, the soul from
Purgatory springs!”
The 95 Theses
• Luther wrote a private
letter to Albrecht
condemning indulgences,
and included 95 theses
raising concerns of
Church practices,
corruption, etc.
• Letter printed and
distributed: within a
month all of Germany
read and all of Europe by
year’s end
Dispute to Divide: 1518-1521
• Growing secularism
(emerging from Italian
Renaissance and humanism)
amongst European rulers
prevented Luther from
same fate as Hus and Wyclif
• Luther took his message “on
tour” and wrote 8 seminal
essays between 1518-21
• Concilarism challenged
supremacy of pope
• Debate with Johann Eck,
1519
• Luther denied infallibility of
pope and general council;
only the Bible inerrant and
only when interpreted by a
true Christian
• Church erred by executing
Hus for heresy
Central Insights
• Salvation through faith alone
– Rejected “good works”
• Bible was sole authority
• Only sacraments of baptism
and communion were valid
– Rejected transubstantiation
• Priesthood of believers
– Not subject to pope or clergy’s
interpretation of the Bible
• Criticized indulgences and
simony
• Pits the power of the secular
rulers with the “stolen” power
of the clergy
Diet of Worms, 1521
• Luther excommunicated
by Pope Leo X via papal
bull
• HRE Charles V held
tribunal and demanded
Luther recant his
writings; he refused,
“Here I stand; I can do
no other.”
Edict of Worms, 1521
• Luther outlawed as a
heretic
• Kidnapped by agents of
Frederick the Wise (III) and
protected in his castle
• 1523: translated Bible into
the vernacular and
influencing development of
modern German.
– Democratized religion as any
literate German could now
read Scripture
– People disputing faith and the
Gospel with priests, monks,
and doctors of divinity
The Spread of Protestantism
Germany
• Northern German states, for
political reasons, turned to
Lutheranism
– German princes could
confiscate Church land and
exercise own authority
Denmark & Sweden
• Little spread beyond
northern Germany and
Scandinavia
Peasants’ War of 1524-25
(German Peasants’ Revolt)
• Largest armed rebellion in Europe
prior to the French Revolution
• Peasants of southwest Germany,
reading Luther’s NT rose up
against landlords, taxation, and
other feudal practices
• Luther took middle ground: did
not support uprising and
violence, even though supported
some of the demands
• Both Catholic and Lutheran
armies together ended uprising,
killing upwards of 100,000
peasants
The Second Reformation (15251564)
• HRE Charles V distracted by Turkish
victories in eastern Europe led by
Suleiman the Magnificent
• Thus, allowed Lutherans to be
Lutherans: Diet of Speyer (1526)
permitted princely territories to
decide religious matters on their own
• Only lasted 3 years, when Charles V
tried to re-Catholicize Germany.
• League of Schmalkalden, 1531:
Lutheran princes banded together for
mutual defense
• French King Henry II joined Lutherans
to diminish Charles V power
• Peace of Augsburg, 1555
– Princes in Germany could
choose religion in region
– Catholics or Protestants could
move to appropriate state
– Resulted in permanent
religious division of Germany
and affirmed independence of
Germanic states until 1871
Spread of Protestantism
Anabaptists
• Zurich, Switzerland 1525
• No allegiance to any state
– Rejected secular contracts
• No infant baptism as only
adults could decide to
commit to Christ
• Believed the end of the
world was near
• Rejected Holy Trinity
Radical Anabaptists
• Led by John of Leyden, 1532
• Instituted polygamy
• All books, except Bible,
burned
• Began killing Lutherans and
Catholics
• Tragedy at Munster, 1534:
– Joint army of Catholics and
Lutherans surrounded city
and burned radicals
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Swiss Reformation
• Humanist influenced by Erasmus
• Adopted Lutheranism and
established a theocracy in Zurich
• Saw the Eucharist as only
symbolic, not actual presence of
Christ (Colloquy of Marburg 1529)
– First major dispute preventing
unified Protestant movement
• Went further than Luther, “art
had no biblical warrant and
therefore could not be made
Christian, and music, like art,
distracted people’s attention
from hearing the word of God.”
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Calvinism
• Most significant of new Protestant
sects
• Exiled Frenchman hiding in Geneva
• Influenced by Erasmus
• Established a theocracy in Geneva by
1540
– New center of Reformation
– Home for Protestant exiles in
England, Scotland, and France
– Church and city should combine
to enforce Christian behavior
– Only committed Calvinists allowed
in city
Institutes of the Christian
Religion (1536)
• Foundational text
• Predestination: God is allknowing and already knows
who will achieve salvation
– “good works” not sufficient
for salvation, but a sign that
one has been chosen
– No free will
– God reveals chosen by a
conversion experience
• The “elect” are church
members who have had this
and are model Christians
Calvinism
• Most militant
– Consistory: a judiciary of
lay elders (presbyters)
with the power to
impose harsh penalties
for not following God’s
law
• Drinking, singing (secular
music), dancing, usury,
and gambling
– Protestant Work Ethic
• Importance of hard work
and financial success a
sign of God’s approval
Spread of Calvinism:
• Presbyterians
– Established in Scotland by John Knox
1560
– Dominant religion
• Huguenots: French Calvinists brutally
suppressed
• Dutch Reformed Church
– Set the stage for a revolt against the
Inquisition under King Phillip II
– Declared its independence in 1581
(recognized by 1648)
• Puritans in England
– Pressured Elizabeth I for reforms
– Established colonies in America
– Won English Civil War (1642-49)
The English Reformation
Early reformers
• John Wyclif
• William Tyndale
– A humanist
– Translated Bible into English
in 1526
– Basis for King James Version
– Hunted and executed in 1536
after smuggling English Bibles
to England
– Refused to recognize Henry
VIII leadership of Anglican
Church
Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)
• Supported Catholicism and
the Pope during the
Reformation, hated Luther,
and distrustful of ordinary
people reading Bible in
English
• Wrote Defense of Seven
Sacraments, given title
“Defender of the Faith”
• More autonomy in England
than continent
– King appointed Bishops
Anglican Church
• Henry sought annulment
from Catherine of Aragon
(HRE Charles V aunt)
– Failure to produce male heir
– Received papal dispensation
to marry Catherine, now
seeking annulment
• Pope under control of
Charles V
– Hoping to marry Anne Boleyn
Church of England
• Pope Clement VII refused
• HRE Charles V sacked Rome
1527
• 1533: Thomas Cranmer
replaced Cardinal Wolsey,
convinced Henry to break
away from Rome and
divorce Catherine
– He had secretly married Anne
in 1533 when she was 6
months pregnant with
Elizabeth I
Henry VIII
The Act of Supremacy, 1534
• Made King officially head of
Church
• Catholic lands confiscated
(about 25% of all lands)
– Doubled royal revenues
– Nobles who bought land
created enclosures
• Closed monasteries
Act of Succession, 1534
• All king’s subjects had to take an
oath of loyalty to the king as the
head of the Anglican Church
• Ordered execution of Thomas
More for refusing this oath
• 1536: Pilgrimage of Grace:
multiclass rebellion against
Henry’s Reformation
Statute of the Six Articles, 1539
• Anglican Church maintained most
of the Catholic doctrines (7
sacraments, transubstantiation,
celibacy for clergy)
Tudor Succession
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Edward VI (r. 1547-1553)
Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558)
Henry’s only legitimate son by Jane
Seymore (his 3rd wife)
10 years old when took throne – strongly
Protestant advisors
England adopts Calvinism during his reign
– Clergy could marry
– Iconic images removed from churches
– Communion by laity expanded
New doctrines:
– Salvation by faith
– Denial of transubstantiation
– 2 sacraments: baptism & communion
Premature death led to religious struggle
• Tried to impose Catholicism
• Married to Spanish heir, Phillip II
– would put England under
Spanish subjugation
• Rescinded reformation legislation
• Marian exiles: Protestants fled
England fearing persecution
• 300 people executed including
bishops and Archbishop Cranmer
• Called “Bloody Mary”
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) the “Virgin Queen”
Elizabethan Settlement
•
•
•
Seen as illegitimate by Catholics
Protestant views
– Politique: navigated
compromise between Anglican
and Protestantism
She and Parliament required
conformity to Anglican Church, but
people allowed to worship privately
– Lutheran
– Services in English
– Clergy could marry
– Everyone required to attend
services or fined
Thirty-Nine Articles, 1563
• Defined creed of Anglican
Church
– Vague enough to
accommodate most people,
except Puritans
• Catholics assassination
attempts and invasions
– Hoping to place Mary Stuart
(Queen of Scots) on throne
– Led to her execution in 1587
Reformation and Women
Protestant Women
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Luther: women caretakers
Calvin: subjugation of women to preserve moral
order
Churches: more control over marriage than
Catholic Church
– Suppressed common law marriages
Marriage more about loving relationship
between man and wife
– Sex not just for procreation
Emphasis on reading the Bible led to increased
literacy
– Mothers taught children
– Schools for girls
Lost opportunities for church service (nuns)
Lost property rights and ability to make legal
transactions
Catholic Women
•
•
•
Opportunities in the Church
Angela Merici (1474-1540)
– Ursuline Order of Nuns in the 1530s to
provide education and religious training
• Approved by Paul III in 1544
• Foundation for young girls within the
Church; built and staffed schools and
universities for women
– Provided Christian education to combat
heresy
– Spread to France and New World
Teresa de Avila (1515-1582)
– Spanish leader of the reform movement
for monasteries and convents
– Preached direct relationship with God
through prayer and contemplation
Essay Topics
1. Analyze the causes of the Protestant Reformation
2. Compare and contrast the doctrines and practices
of Lutheranism and Calvinism with Catholic
doctrines and practices.
3. To what extent did Renaissance humanism result in
the Reformation?
4. Compare and contrast the English Reformation on
European politics and society in the 16th century. Be
sure to consider Germany, England, France, and the
Netherlands.