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Ottoman Empire 1566
Early Ottoman Empire
Power of the Sultan
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Protector of Islam: holy sites & the annual pilgrimage.
The army provided protection to all the citizens under its
imperial jurisdiction, especially trade routes and against
foreign aggression.
The Empire consisted of several provinces organised around
key cities such as Baghdad, Cairo & Damascus.
The stability of the empire depended on the maintenance of
a fine balance between the central power and regional
powers.
Symbiotic relationship, based on economic, cultural &
political exchange, between them.
Ottoman Society
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The fellahin (peasants) constituted the majority and were
the most exploited. They worked the land and produced
food for the empire.
The Millet System recognised non-Muslim communities as
integral parts of the empire.
Sometimes they were allowed autonomy, especially in
matters pertaining to religion and culture.
Each community was responsible for the allocation and
collection of its taxes, education and issues relating to
personal status issues such as marriage, divorce and
inheritance.
The army played a central role in defending the empire and
securing the authority of the Sultan.
Janissaries
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The standing army first organized by Sultan Murad I.
Consisted mainly of Christian youths who were converted to
Islam and specifically conscripted to serve in the army.
To ensure the loyalty of the elite force, they were given
many privileges but were separated from civil society and
forbidden to marry.
By 1820 there were 135 000 Janissaries
Jannissaries
Turning Point
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Pressure for decentralisation from the 18th century, which
led to the accumulation of power in the hands of local
rulers, at the expense of the sultan.
The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 accelerated these
processes.
By 1801 the French were evicted by a combined force of
Ottoman and British troops.
From this point the Ottomans became the target of imperial
rivalry between the emerging European powers of Britain,
France and Russia.
Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali
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After the defeat of the French forces Muhammad Ali
ascended to power as the governor of Egypt.
Programme of modernisation & assertion of autonomy:
Industrialisation, especially manufacturing of war materials
and textiles.
Education was expanded, including the opening of schools
to girls.
Transformation of the army.
Muhammad overthrown in 1840 by British and Ottoman
forces.
Hereditary dynasty and his sons continued to rule Egypt.
Tanzimat – Reform from above
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Introduction of reforms from the 1830 to modernise the
empire. Led by Rashid Pasha, Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Prior to this the Janissaries were violently disbanded. They
had become a law unto themselves, supported conservative
leaders and opposed reform.
Reforms: the abolition of tax on farming; standardisation of
military conscription; campaign against corruption; and the
establishment of a Ministry of Education.
In 1876 a new Ottoman Constitution was introduced, which
allowed for elections to a chamber of deputies and senate.
British Influence
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Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869
By 1881, 80% of the traffic passing through the Suez Canal
was British owned
Cromer’s Rule
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Reversed the industrial programme and transformed the
Egyptian economy into a single-product economy, namely,
cotton to serve the burgeoning textile industry in Britain.
Post-secondary education institutions were closed and
tuition fees introduced
Capitulations: Europeans exempted from taxation and
Egyptian law.
Cairo segregated along racial lines
Egypt became the centre of early resistance to British
imperialism
Early Resistance
. In the early 1880s Urabi Movement led by Colonal Ahmed
Urabi, led the anti-British resistance
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Drew support mainly from the fellahin.
In 1882 rebellion throughout Egypt, brutally repressed by
British and French forces.
Early Nationalism
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In the late 19th century an array of nationalist movement
developed, led by intellectuals, young officers and civil
servants.
Divided between support for secular and religious
nationalism.
Young Turks revolution in 1908 deposed Sultan Hamid and
installed Mehmet V. Reform package:
Guarantee of rights to non-Muslims
A constitutional monarchy.
Abolition of the Millet system
Mustafa Ataturk
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Treaty of Sevres (1920) carved up the Empire, including
ceding parts of Turkey to Greece.
The Sultan’s support for the Treaty ignited widespread
resistance that coalesced around Mustafa Kemal.
Secular Turkey
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In April 1920 a National Assembly was convened which
elected Kemal as president.
In 1921 a new constitution was adopted that included the
crucial National Pact, which renounced Turkish claims over
Arab territories and affirmed Turkish sovereignty.
In 1922 Kemal led a successful military campaign over
Greece, reclaiming the land ceded to the latter in 1920
Ataturk’s election effectively signalled the end of the
Ottoman Empire. In its place Turkey emerged as a leading
secular nation.