Transcript Western Civilization I HIS-101

Western Civilization II
HIS-102
UNIT 1 – The Reformation
Europe at 1500
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Rebounding from the terrible 14th century
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Stronger monarchs
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Population was starting to increase into pre-plague levels
The economy was expanding, including trade and colonialism
National monarchies created in England, France, Spain, and
Poland
Had secure holds on their thrones
Catholic church had survived upheavals by radical groups
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Suppression of heresy
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Included the Lollards in England and the Hussites in Bohemia
Popular devotion had increased
Then comes the Protestant Reformation
The Reformation
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Reformation started as a movement to reform the
Catholic Church
Backlash
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Broke the monopoly of the Catholic Church
Rise of Protestantism
Bloody wars that tore Europe apart for over a century
Church was in desperate need of reform
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The clergy were uneducated and often corrupt
The popes were unable to provide spiritual leadership
There was a rise of popular religion
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Europe (c. 1519)
The Holy Roman Empire
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The Reformation begins in Saxony
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Holy Roman Empire
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This was part of the Holy Roman Empire
Conglomeration of small states under the control of the Holy
Roman Emperor
Very unlikely place for the Reformation to have started
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It was not a unified country
Renaissance had affected Germans the least and they remained
very religious
At the same time, they believed that the were the greatest
victims of Church abuses
The Holy Roman Empire
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Charles V (1519-1558)
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Had control of a vast empire when he took the position
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Was elected HRE on June 28, 1519 at the age of 19
Represented the peak of Habsburg power
Spain (and its overseas empire)
Spanish Netherlands (aka the Low Countries)
Lands in Austria and Hungary
Kingdoms of Naples and Sardina, and Bohemia
He wanted full control over his lands
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Included unifying it under one faith: Catholicism
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Lands Controlled by the House of Habsburg in 1556
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Martin Luther
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(1483-1546)
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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“Spiritual Awakening” (1505)
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He was born in Saxony
Under pressure from his parents, Luther attended the
University of Erfurt to study law
Occurred on his way home from school
Joined the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt soon after
Monastic Years
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Reflected on how he was to achieve his own salvation
He constantly prayed, fasted, and went on pilgrimages
Nothing he did was able to give him the peace he sought after
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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The problem of the justice of God
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Path to salvation
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How could God issue commands man could not obey?
If you did not obey, you were doomed to eternal damnation
Catholic church believed salvation was through both good
deeds and faith
Luther did not believe any person could do enough good
works to be saved
Turn to academia
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His superior, Johann von Staupitz, told Luther that he should
try an academic career
Became a professor of theology and the Bible at the University
of Wittenberg
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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“Tower Experience” (1513)
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Luther came across the passage “the just shall live by faith
alone” in St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans (1:17)
“Justification” meant God turning a sinner into a righteous
person eligible for salvation
Those who are saved are done so through faith only
This was a huge revelation for Luther
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God’s justice does not depend on “good works” and religious
ceremonies
Humans are saved by grace alone
This became known as “justification by faith alone”
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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Salvation and the Catholic church
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The church (sacraments) and the believer (piety and charity)
could affect salvation
The church “quantified” the process of salvation
The “Treasury of Merits”
The indulgence
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Remission of the penitential obligations imposed by priests
Indulgences earned by demanding spiritual exercises (eleventh and
twelfth centuries)
Indulgences granted with a monetary payment
Indulgences seen by many as just another form of simony
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Namely, selling grace in return for cash
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Albert of
Hohenzollern
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(1490-1545)
Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)
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Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)
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In 1514, Albert purchased the Archbishopric of Mainz
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Was the archbishop of Magdeburg and the administrator of the
diocese of Halberstadt
Received these jobs when he was only 23 years old at the time
Had to take out a loan of 21,000 ducats (~ $1 million in 2010)
As this was a significant amount, he had to come to an
agreement with Pope Leo X
The Deal
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Albert would be given permission to sell indulgences
Half of his income would be sent to Rome to help pay the cost
of the building of St. Peter’s Basilica
The other half would go to paying off his loans
Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)
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Johann Tetzel (1465-1519)
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Luther is very upset about this
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Dominican monk hired by Albert to sell indulgences
throughout northern Germany
His slogan: “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul
from purgatory springs”
Believed people were saved by faith, not good deeds or by
buying indulgences
“Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy
of Indulgences” (1517)
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Attached to a letter to Albert on October 31, 1517
Luther condemned him for his sale of indulgences
The 95 Theses
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Luther then nailed a copy of the “Disputation” to the
door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg that same day
He did not believe he was breaking any church laws
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The Theses were incredibly popular
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They were not direct attacks against the church
It was written in Latin with the intention of promoting
scholarly debates
Sales of indulgences dropped dramatically in 1518
Albert forwarded a copy of it to the papacy
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Pope Leo X actually dismissed Luther as a “drunken German”
in 1518
The 95 Theses
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Examples:
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82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the
sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are
there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of
miserable money with which to build a Church? The former
reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial.“
86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is today
greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church
of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of
poor believers?"
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Luther nailing the
95 Theses to the
church door
Break With the Church
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Leipzig Disputation (June 27-July 4, 1519)
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A theological debate was held in Leipzig
In arguing about papal supremacy, Luther said that the pope
and all clerics were fallible
Instead of relying on the pope as the highest spiritual authority,
one should look to the Scripture for truth
In 1520, Luther started to break from the church
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Published a series of pamphlets putting forth his ideas
Main ideas
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Justification by faith alone
The “priesthood of all believers”
The primacy of Scripture
Break With the Church
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Another key point was that if it is not in the Bible, it
should not be followed
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Denied transubstantiation and promoted consubstantiation
The dissolution of all monasteries and convents
Reduced the number of sacraments from seven to two
(baptism and the Eucharist)
End of the entire ecclesiastical hierarchy of popes and bishops
Substituting German for Latin in church services
He also argued that the clergy should marry since while
“virginity was good, marriage is better, and freedom of choice is
best”
Break With the Church
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Why was Luther so successful?
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The role of the printing press in spreading Luther’s message
Luther’s defiance touched off a national religious revolt against
the papacy
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Popes bribed the cardinals to gain the papacy
Moral corruption
Popes waged war to gain territory
There were no agreements (concordats) between pope and
German emperor
Princes complained that taxes were too high
Many German princes sided with Luther as a way to attack
Roman influence and corruption
Break With the Church
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Other factors:
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Peasants hoped Lutheranism would free them from the
exactions of their lords
Towns and princes were trying to consolidate their political
independence
Nationalist demands for liberation from foreign popes
From reforming the church to a frontal assault on the church
On January 3, 1521, the pope issued the official decree of
excommunication
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This stated that Luther was officially a heretic
Frederick the Wise of Saxony intervened on Luther’s behalf
He requested a fair hearing for Luther in front of the Imperial
Diet
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Luther at the Diet of Worms
Diet of Worms
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Diet at the city of Worms (April 17-8, 1521)
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Charles V was in attendance
Many expected Luther to recant his writings in order to avoid
persecution
Luther was asked to recant the “heresies” in his works
“Since then Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple
replay, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I
am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept
the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted
each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I
cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against
conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do
otherwise. God help me. Amen.”
Diet of Worms
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Edict of Worms of 1521 (May 8, 1521)
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Issued by Charles V
It reaffirmed Luther’s position as a heretic and political outlaw
It stated that all of Luther’s writing were to be burned
Luther had left Worms by this point
Kidnapping
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Frederick the Wise orchestrated the kidnapping of Luther
Luther spent over a year in hiding under his protection at the
castle of the Wartburg
Luther spent his time in hiding working on building a new
reformed church
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Wartburg Castle
Support of the German Princes
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Key to the survival of Lutheranism lay in the support of
the German princes and free cities
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No matter how popular it was, the movement could easily be
crushed
Some rulers were effective at limiting the power of the
Catholic Church
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They sought to control appointments to church offices and
restrict flow of money to Rome
Statute of Praemunire (1353) gave the English courts
supremacy over papal courts
In 1487, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain were granted the
Spanish Inquisition
Concordat of Bologna (1516) gave the French king the right to
choose bishops and abbots
Support of the German Princes
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German princes did not have nearly as much power
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Lutheranism was an attractive option
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Did not have large enough armies to assert their positions
Were unable to gain concessions from the church
There was no church hierarchy so there were no church
officials to challenge their authority
This gave the princes more power than they ever had before
Luther used this to his advantage
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He encouraged the princes to confiscate church lands and its
wealth as a way of gaining their support
He also got them involved in organizing and guiding the new
Lutheran churches
Support of the German Princes
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However, the princes could not just embrace Lutheranism
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They had to wait to see what Charles V would first
If Charles took notice, he would send in troops from all over
Europe to crush the movement
Charles was preoccupied with more pressing matters
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He was involved in one war with France and another one with
the Ottoman Turks
Hoped Pope Clement VII would take care of the Protestant
threat in the Holy Roman Empire
Clement was more fearful of Charles’ growing power in Italy
so he joined the French in against Charles
Support of the German Princes
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Clearly, Charles was unwilling to defend Catholicism in
the Empire
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Many free cities also converted to Lutheranism
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Because of this, many princes joined the Lutheran movement
Some joined for pious reasons
Others joined for economic and political ones
They too could now control the politics of their cities without
the interference of bishops or other church officials
This meant that Lutheranism was able to flourish in those
areas
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Swiss Confederation
Reformation in Switzerland
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The Swiss still were part of the Holy Roman Empire
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The Swiss Confederation
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Consisted of six forest (rural) cantons and seven urban (city)
cantons
No one person had control over Switzerland
The members of the cantons decided what they wanted
The Swiss had strong loyalties to their local governments
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In 1499, they were able to defeat Emperor Maximilian and
were able to gain some autonomy
Deeply resented the papacy getting involved in Swiss affairs
The Protestant movement came to Switzerland in 1520
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Ulrich Zwingli
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(1484-1531)
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
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Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
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Appointment as People’s Priest (December 11, 1518)
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Graduated from the University of Basel with a Master’s Degree
in Divinity
Was exposed to the writings of the northern Humanists
This was at the Great Minster in the city of Zürich
The position gave him little income or influence but gave him
many opportunities to preach to the public
On January 1, 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon
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As part of it, he read from a Greek Bible and gave his own
interpretation of it
His speech was entirely based on the scriptures
This had a sensational impact on the attendees
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
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With this popularity, he continued on with similar
sermons
Bubonic plague hit Zürich in August 1519
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Zwingli tended to the sick
He eventually caught the plague himself but survived
This had a huge impact on Zwingli’s teachings
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He became more serious in his reforms of the church
It was also at this time that he secretly broke away from the
Roman Church
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
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Zwingli’s theology was similar to Luther
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Believed that Catholic theology and practice conflicted with
the Gospels
Disagreed with many of the practices of the Church including
fasting, pilgrimages, monastic vows, celibacy, penance, and
purgatory
Condemned religious images and hierarchical authority
Disagreed with Luther about the Lord’s Supper
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Luther believed that “this is my body” meant that Christ’s
blood and body were present “in, with and under” the wine
and bread
Zwingli believed it represented Christ’s blood and body
This prevented any cooperation between the two
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John of Leiden
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(c.1509-1536)
Anabaptists
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Anabaptists
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Their main ideas included:
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“Anabaptism” means “rebaptism”
Radical reformers in Switzerland and northern Germany
Were originally part of Zwingli’s movement in Zürich but were
deemed too radical
Adult baptism instead of infant baptism
Men and women are not born into any church but join one
The belief that anyone could be a priest and therefore the
community should elect its leaders
True pacifists
Feared by both Catholics and Protestants
Anabaptist
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Settled in Münster in the 1530s
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On January 5, 1534, they took full control of the city
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First location where they were allowed to remain
Attracted more Anabaptists to the city
They wanted to change the city to a theocracy
One of the leaders, John of Leiden, took the title of “King of
the New Temple”
Reforms were instituted throughout the city
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Anabaptist religious practices became mandatory
Private property was abolished
Common ownership was introduced
Polygamy was allowed
Anabaptists
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Catholic troops lay siege to the city in spring 1535
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John of Leiden and two of his lieutenants were tortured
to death
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Led by the Bishop of Münster
On June 24, 1535, they were able to successfully retake the city
Their bodies were pulled apart with red-hot pokers and they
were killed with a dagger through the heart
Their bodies were then put in cages, which hung from the
steeple of St. Lambert's Church, to rot and were eventually
removed 50 years later
Remaining Anabaptist groups were heavily persecuted
throughout Europe
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Execution of the
Anabaptist leaders
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Cages at St.
Lambert’s Church
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John Calvin
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(1509-1564)
John Calvin (1509-1564)
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John Calvin (1509-1564)
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Born in Picardie, France
From an early age he was expected to enter the church
He received an MA in theology from the University of Paris
When his father fell out of favor with his church friends, he
insisted Calvin to go into law so instead
Calvin received his law degree from the University of Orleans
When his father died in 1531, Calvin returned to theology and
moved back to Paris
While there, he became involved in a reform movement that
was based upon Humanism
John Calvin (1509-1564)
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France at this time was not a safe place for Protestants
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Calvin spent a few years traveling around Europe
Calvin’s theology
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Laid out in his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
Believed in the omnipotence of God
Because of Adam’s sin, all men were born sinners and were
doomed to a life of sin
Nothing that we do on earth affects where we end up in the
afterlife
God predestines some humans for salvation (the Elect)
Called for an active life of piety and morality
Calvin was strongly influenced by St. Augustine
John Calvin (1509-1564)
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In 1541, Calvin was given the opportunity to create a
theocracy in Geneva
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He had already been to the city in 1536 but was kicked out
after his theology was deemed too radical
Calvin’s theocracy
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Rejected the Catholic church hierarchy and the pope
Replaced them with assemblies of ministers and electors
The main authority was the Consistory
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Main job was approving religious law
Also supervised all public and private morality in the city
“Four bare walls and a sermon”
John Calvin (1509-1564)
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Calvin’s theocracy was incredibly successful
Many Protestants throughout Europe were influenced by
him
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John Knox (c. 1513–1572) started his reform movement in
Scotland based on Calvinism (Presbyterians)
Dutch Reformed Church in Holland
Puritans in England
Huguenots in France
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Henry VIII
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(1491-1547)
Reformation in England
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Reformation in England was very different than the rest of
Europe
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Main reason behind it was political rather than religious
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England was not affected by the papacy and church abuses as
other countries
It was rooted in Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon
Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536)
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Spanish princess, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella
Originally married to Henry’s older brother, Arthur, for five
months before he died
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Catherine of Aragon
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(1485-1536)
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
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Henry VII did not want to lose the alliance with Spain
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This was not permitted by Church law
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He suggested that his other son, Henry, would marry
Catherine instead
Prohibited marriage of a man to his brother’s widow
Catherine said that she never consummated her marriage with
Arthur
Thus, they were able to receive a papal dispensation from Pope
Julius II in 1503 and got married in 1509
Catherine was unable to give Henry a son
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She had a number of stillbirths
Those that did survive died shortly after birth
She did give birth to a daughter, Mary, in 1516
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
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As the years went on, the situation grew dim for Henry
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Affair with Anne Boleyn
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Started in 1525
Anne had been one of Catherine’s Ladies-in-Waiting
Quest for an annulment
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Catherine eventually got well past the childbearing age
She had no pregnancies after 1519
Henry first asked Catherine for an annulment but she refused
In 1527, he petitions Pope Clement VII for an annulment
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Henry argued that God was punishing him for marrying his
deceased brother’s wife
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
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Clement had a serious issue if he granted the annulment:
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Also, HRE Charles V became involved in this issue
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He would be admitting the first papal dispensation was invalid
This would then question the validity of all other dispensations
He was Catherine’s nephew
He had recently invaded Rome and held the pope in captivity
Clement stalled the annulment
Henry asked his own chief clergymen to investigate an
annulment
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In 1531, declared himself to be “protestor and supreme head”
of the church in England
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
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In late 1532, Anne Boleyn became pregnant
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Henry secretly married Anne on January 25, 1533
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He did not want the child, if it was a boy, to be a bastard
In May 1533, an English ecclesiastical court declared
Henry’s marriage to Catherine was void
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This meant the annulment became more urgent
This decision could not be appealed by the papacy because of
the Statute of Praemunire (1353)
The court also recognized Henry’s marriage to Anne
This was followed with the excommunication of Henry by
Clement VII
Anne Boleyn was crowned on June 1, 1533
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Anne Boleyn
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(1501-1536)
Official Break With the Church
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Henry proceeded to have Parliament pass a series of laws
cutting off all ties to Rome
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Asserted that there was no authority in England greater than
the king and Parliament
The pope no longer had any standing in England
Acts of Supremacy and Treason (1534)
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The king “justly and rightfully is and ought to be the supreme
head of the Church of England”
These created an independent national church which was now
known as the Church of England (Anglicans Ecclesia), or the
Anglican Church
These also made it punishable by death to deny that the king
was the supreme head of the church
Official Break With the Church
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Act Dissolving the Greater Monasteries (1539)
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Six Articles of Faith (1539)
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This act shut down all monasteries and convents in England
All their wealth was then given to the king
Only true “Protestant” move made by Henry
This were issued by Parliament to show a break with Rome
and not specifically Catholicism
It included such ideas as transubstantiation, the celibacy of the
clergy, and the importance of oral confessions
These became the basic beliefs of the Anglican church but at
the same time mirrored similar Catholic doctrines
Anglican church remained Catholic in organization,
doctrine, ritual, and language
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Edward VI
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(1547-1553)
Edward VI (1547-1553)
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Edward VI (1547-1553)
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Was nine years old when he was crowned king in 1547
Many members of his regency were radical Protestants
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They used their position of power to revise church
Edward himself was a devout Protestant
Changes to the church included:
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Priests were permitted to marry
English was substituted for Latin
The veneration of holy images was abolished
Denounced all sacraments except baptism and communion
Justification by faith alone
Denied transubstantiation and accepted consubstantiation
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Mary I
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(1553-1558)
Mary I (1553-1558)
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Mary was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon
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She vowed to bring Catholicism back to England
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She also wanted to realign the country back with the papacy
At the time, a majority of England was still Roman
Catholic
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She was raised as a Roman Catholic
She was 37 years old when she was crowned on July 19, 1553
Many resented the changes brought about by Edward
Act of Repeal (October 1553)
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It undid all the religious changes done during Edward’s reign
Mary I (1553-1558)
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Revival of the Heresy Acts (November 1554)
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Other changes she made:
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She reinstituted medieval heresy laws and began her
prosecution of Protestants
Over 280 Protestants were burned at the stake for heresy
Over 800 Protestants fled England at this time
Repealed many of the religious changes made by Henry
Restored the celebration of mass in Latin and clerical celibacy
Forced Parliament to vote for the unconditional return of
England to papal allegiance
She died on November 17, 1558
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She made no concessions for a Catholic ruler to follow her
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Elizabeth I
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(1558-1603)
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

Elizabeth was the daughter of Anne Boleyn
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Her main goal was to bring religious peace to England
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She was raised Protestant but was not devout
She wanted to bring a compromise between Catholics and
Protestants by “going down the middle”
Act of Supremacy of 1559
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This repealed all of Mary’s legislation
Foreign princes were not allowed to exercise any power in
England
Elizabeth was declared the spiritual and religious head of the
church
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

The Act also included an Oath of Supremacy
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Every person holding civil or church office must make an oath
stating the Queen was the head of the church or else they
would be charged with treason
Act of Uniformity of 1559
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Reestablished some of the prayers and doctrines of Edward’s
reign
She made the 1552 Book of Common Prayer compulsory
She required all English to attend the Anglican church on
Sundays
If they did not, they were charged a fine of 12 pence called a
recusancy fine
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

39 Articles of Faith (1563)
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Elizabeth was excommunicated by Pope Pius V in 1570
By this point in time, a majority of English had accepted
the Protestant religion
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The Anglican church now looked like a cross between Luther
and the Catholic Church
The only ones who did not accept Elizabeth’s compromise
were the Catholics and the radical Protestants (the Puritans)
With the Compromise, the English Reformation was
officially over

Council of Trent (1545–1563)
Counter Reformation


The Catholic Church could not ignore the problems it
was facing both internally and externally
Calls for a two front assault

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To Catholics, this is called the “Catholic Reformation”


Wanted to fight the growing threat of Protestantism
Also wanted to renew the Church from the inside as well
To non-Catholics is it referred to as the “Counter
Reformation”
Broken down into three phases
First Phase of the Counter-Reformation

First phase began in the 1490s


There was a movement for moral and institutional reform
within the religious orders


Contained two major movements from within
However, the Papacy showed little interest in making changes
Growing influence of northern humanists
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Encouraged the laity to lead lives of simple but sincere religious
piety
Also believed in ad fontes (“to the source”) to find a way to
bring back the church to its original state
Included such great thinkers as Deiderus Erasmus
Here too, the calls were ignored by the papacy
Second Phase (1530s-1550s)

Second phase began during the 1530s


New style of papal leadership

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The popes began acting like spiritual leaders
Accomplished administrators were hired to run the Vatican
The papal finances were reorganized
Pope Paul III (1534-1549)


This was a period of more aggressive reform
Organized the Council of Trent to deal with Protestantism
Pope Paul IV (1555-1559)

Very orthodox and demanded reform in the church
Third Phase(1545-1563)
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
The third phase was the Council of Trent (1545–1563)
Council reaffirmed many of the Catholic doctrines

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All seven sacraments, not just two, were considered necessary
Stated that both good deeds and faith were needed for
salvation
Reaffirmed transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, purgatory,
and papal supremacy
Dealt with the major problems in the church
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Called for an end to pluralism
Indulgences were to be earned, not sold
Abolished certain popular religious cults and replaced them
with “approved” ones such as the Cult of the Virgin Mary
Established the Index of Forbidden Books (1564)

Ignatius Loyola

(1491-1556)
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)

The Society of Jesus

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
Was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540
It was a very militant society whose purpose was to fight
heresy and bring back the “lost souls” to Catholicism
One of the major role players in the Counter Reformation
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)



He had been a solider in the Spanish army when he got hit in
the leg with a cannonball
His injury was very difficult to heal
It was at the time that he made the decision to be a solider of
Christ
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)

The Spiritual Exercises (1522-1524)

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A series of mediations, prayers, and mental exercises
Practical advice on how to master the will
A program of meditations on sin and the life of Christ
In 1534, he formed the Society of Jesus


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Did this along with six other friends
In 1540, they received papal approval for the Society to be an
official order of the church
In 1548, Pope Paul III formally approved the Exercises
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)

The Society played many roles


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They were able to regain territory lost to the Protestant
movement using rhetoric and persuasion rather than force
They developed some of the best schools in the world
They became confessors to the nobility
Due to their education and training, they were in demand to
hold government positions
Acted as missionaries to help convert new areas to
Catholicism
By the time of Loyola’s death, there were over 1,000
members of the Society

Over the next century, the Society spread to Asia (India and
China) and South American
Impacts of the Reformation

Consequences of the Reformation on Europe



It increased power of Europe’s sovereign states by taking away
the power of the Catholic Church
It broke the religious monopoly the Catholic Church had in
Europe
It also caused major divisions to take place in Europe which
will lead to a century of religious warfare