Transcript Nationalism, Liberalism and Conservative - APEH

NATIONALISM, LIBERALISM AND
CONSERVATIVE REACTIONS
THE QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE
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Alexander proposed Holy Alliance in 1815
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Quadruple Alliance renewed(Nov20,1815)
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New diplomacy in European affairs; determined to prevent
upheaval
purpose of treaty to secure peace,
Vienna Settlement, powers framed good relations
Congress of Vienna achieved goals
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monarchs promised to act with Christian ideals,
Austria and Prussia signed
Britain- Castlereagh didn’t
France accepted situation/new legal framework
Criticized for failing to recognize/provide for
nationalism/democracy (inappropriate) general desire was for
peace
virtually unprecedented to produce settlement intact for 100 yrs
CHANGED POLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE
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Holy Roman Empire Goes
 Austria now its own nation
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300 German States reduced to 39.
More Catholic states than Protestant ones disappeared
 no Habsburg would again be elected emperor
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France becomes less important for 30 years
Britain's mastery of the seas now total
NATIONALISM
The idea of a nation consisting of people unified by common
culture, language, and/or religion, who should all be ruled by one
government
Reaction against Cosmopolitanism
 Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong to one family.
Enlightenment culture had emphasized
 A common language
 The universality of Reason.
 Common intellectual world of the educated middle class and
nobility.
Opposition to the Congress of Vienna,
 Principle of states based on monarchies and dynasties,
 Disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a factor for
boundaries
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FIRST PHASE
(FIRST HALF OF THE 1800S)
 Small
nationalist groups
Intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers, and other
scholars)
 Imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on the people
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GERMAN NATIONALISM AND
HISTORY
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German Romantics
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G. Fichte
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Glorification of the individual and culture
The world exists because of humans
Johann Gottfried Herder
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Rejection of French influences in Germany
Promoted German folk cultures
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Grimm Bros followed his example
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
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Created system of how ideas develop
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Thesis- set of ideas
Antithesis- conflicting ideas
Synthesis- Merging of ideas
MEANINGS OF NATIONHOOD
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Some nationalists
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Argued that uniting ethnicities into one group would help
economic and administrative success
Thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or
compared nationhood to divinity
Difficulties in classifying nations
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Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with
legitimacy to claim political and territorial
independence?
Would nationhood only be classified on which groups
managed to create a stable economy and culture?
Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate grasps
for independence?
THE IMPACT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION: LIBERTY,
EQUALITY AND FRATERNITY
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French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of the
people. The people come to have their own
significance as a unit.
Reaction to French Revolution
French spread their ideals all over Europe.
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dominated the other countries.
Other countries took up the ideals of the French Rev. and
applied them to their own situation, especially in Germany.
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Never been a united German state, but Germans saw what power a
united France had achieved.
THREAT OF NATIONALISM TO THE ESTABLISHMENT
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Nationalists, sought to redraw Europe along
ethnic lines
 Would
effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian,
and Russian empires
Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked
together, adding to the concern of absolutists
and ultraroyalists
 Nationalism eventually succeeded,
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 United
the German and Italian states into unified,
strong countries, challenging French and Austrian
ambitions
CENTERS OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM
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Ireland
 Ireland
became directly governed by the British
Crown after 1800,
 Irish
people elected members to the Parliament
 Nationalists demanded either independence or
autonomy
 Nationalism
would persist in Ireland well into the
20th century
POLISH NATIONALISM
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Since the loss of Polish independence in the
Partitions, Polish nationalists,urged for armed
struggle to regain independence from Austria,
Prussia, and Russia
Most disturbances in the Russian portion of Poland
November Insurrection of 1830-1831
January Insurrection of 1863-1864)
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Both doomed by bad military leadership or disunity
Nationalist groups survived in Poland,
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After 1864, no uprisings occurred
All social classes and sectors of Polish economy must be
improved and equalized before independence
HUNGARIAN NATIONALISM
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Since Maria Theresa granted concessions to the
Magyar nobility of Hungary
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Nobility persisted in gaining and retaining privileges
Hungary troubled the stability of the Habsburg Empire
until its end in World War I
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Nationalists launched several uprisings, and participated in
the "Spring of Nations" in the Revolutions of 1848
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Agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867
Austria and Hungary became virtually separate nations in a
personal union under the Habsburgs
LIBERALISM
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Roots in Enlightenment, English liberties, and
principles of the French Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen
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Less autocratic government
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Establishment of legal equality, religious tolerance, and
freedom of press
Government relied on the consent of the people
Parliament would represent the people
Ministers in government should be responsible to the
legislature rather than the monarch
Sought democracy limited to the property-owners
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Had contempt for the lower class
Aristocratic liberty was thought by liberals to be a concept of
privilege based on wealth and property rather than birth
ECONOMIC GOALS
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Sought the removal of mercantilism and
regulated economy
 Promoted
capitalism
 Favored removal of international tariffs and internal
trade barriers
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France and Great Britain flourished with liberal
establishments
 Germany
was full of anti-liberal nobility
CONSERVATIVE ORDER IN EUROPE
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Conservatism
 Pillars
of Support
 Absolute
Monarchies
 Landed Aristocracies
 Established Churches
CONSERVATIVE VIEWS
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Only aristocratic and/or upper-bourgeois governments could
be trusted
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Aristocrats felt that their power was threatened by representative
governments
Conservatives would not agree to constitutionalism unless they
created the documents
Clerics only supported popular movements if they were
based around the Church
 Clerics supported the status quo, and detested ideas of
the Enlightenment
Upper classes felt surrounded by enemies and gave up
some former privileges
Post-Vienna Europe confronted internal problems after
external ones seemed to disappear
REACTION IN AUSTRIA AND GERMANY
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Austria
 Prince Klemens von Metternich
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Architect of the Congress of Vienna settlement,
Symbol of conservative political reaction against nationalism and
liberalism
Austria was threatened as the most multi-ethnic country in Europe
Recognition of aspirations of any ethnic groups = Dissolution of the
empire
Representative government was feared - national groups could gain
their ambitions legally through parliaments
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To prevent success of nationalism and liberalism even further, the
Austrians wanted to dominate the states of the German Confederation,
 Replaced the HRE
 Loose organization of 39, nominally independent kingdoms and
principalities
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Moves toward constitutional government in each of the states of the
Confederation were opposed and blocked by Austria
PRUSSIA
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King Frederick William III promised
constitutional government in 1815, but went
back on his word in 1817
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Council of State was formed, which was not
constitutionally-based, but effective
 1819-1823 - Further steps away from liberalism
had been undertaken by the King,
 Establishment
of eight Junker-dominated provincial
estates (diets),
 Reaffirmed link between Prussian monarchy, army, and
landholders
GERMAN CONFEDERATION
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Constitutional Governments established in three south
German states of Baden, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg,
Did not recognize popular sovereignty
 Confirmed powers of the monarchs
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Young Germans were loyal to the nationalism and
liberalism that emerged from the Napoleonic
occupation
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University students circulated nationalist writings and formed
the Burschenschaften (student associations)
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Sought to sever old provincial loyalties and replace them with
national loyalty to a greater German state
STUDENT UPRISINGS
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1817 Jena
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Bonfires and celebrations were organized for the anniversaries of the
Battle of Leipzig and Luther's Ninety-five Theses
Nationalist celebrations accentuated the rise of the movement
throughout Germany
March 1819
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Karl Sand,
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Assassinated the conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue and was
tried and executed
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Member of one of the student clubs,
Became a martyr for the young nationalists
Metternich used the Sand incident to suppress the societies
JULY 1819
THE CARLSBAD DECREES
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Metternich persuaded
 Dissolution of the Burschenschaften
 Press and university censorship
 Final Act limited the subjects discussed in the
constitutional assemblies of Bavaria, Wurttemberg,
and Baden
 Right of monarchs to resist constitutionalist
demands
 Led
to the constant harassment of potential dissidents
by the German monarchs
BOURBON RESTORATION IN FRANCE
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Louis XVIII returned to power
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Louis XVI's son, though he never formally ruled
France, was regarded as Louis XVII
Permitted a constitution, but it was largely his
own creation - the Charter
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Hereditary Monarchy
Bicameral legislature - royally-appointed upper
house; lower house (Chamber of Deputies) elected
on a very narrow franchise with high property
requirements
Guaranteed the rights of the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and Citizen
Religious toleration, with Roman Catholicism as the
official religion
Property rights of current owners of land would not
be challenged
RISE OF ULTRAROYALISTS
 Count of Artois (the King’s brother) led the extreme royalists in demanding
revenge against former revolutionaries and Napoleonic supporters
 After “Waterloo” a "White Terror" occurred in the southern and
western regions
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Extreme royalists also controlled the Chamber of Deputies,
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Louis XVIII dissolved the chamber
February 1820 - Duke of Berri, son and heir of Artois,
was assassinated
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King persuaded the murder was the result of the royal
concessions to liberals
 Issued repressive measures
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Electoral laws were revised to give the wealthy two votes
Press censorship and arrest of suspected dissidents
Secondary education was given to control of the Roman
Catholic clergy
Reversed much of the appearance of liberal constitutionalism
in France
CHALLENGES TO THE CONSERVATIVE ORDER
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Spanish Revolution of 1820
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1814 - Bourbon Dynasty restored to Spain following
Napoleon's defeat
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Ferdinand VII, promised to rule constitutionally
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1820 - Group of army officers rebelled
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Outside the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily), the
revolutions failed to establish constitutional governments
Austrians were frightened by the Italian insurrections
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March 1820 - King Ferdinand restored the constitution
July 1820 - revolution broke out in the Italian states
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Dissolved the Cortes, the Spanish Parliament
Hoped to dominate the peninsula as a buffer against spread of the
revolution into its southern domains
Britain opposed intervention
OCTOBER 1820 - CONGRESS OF TROPPAU AND THE
PROTOCOL OF TROPPAU
 Meeting between Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain,
and France
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Stable governments can intervene to bring back rule of
law in unstable and revolutionary countries
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Powers were hesitant, however, to sanction Austrian intervention
in Italy
January 1821 - Congress of Laibach authorizes Austria's
intervention
Austrian troops marched into Naples and abolished the
constitution, making the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies absolutist
again
 Metternich attempted to foster policies that would improve
administration of the Italian governments to give them more direct
local support
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1822 - CONGRESS OF VERONA
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Met to resolve the Spanish conflict
 Britain
refused to sanction joint action and withdrew
from continental affairs
 Austria, Prussia, and Russia supported French
intervention in Spain
 April 1823 - French troops enter Spain and within
months suppress the Spanish Revolution, occupying the
country until 1827
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SPANISH SITUATION
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French intervention was not an excuse to expand territory or
power
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No other interventions of the era were undertaken to increase
power at another country's expense
New British Foreign Minister George Canning, who led
Britain out of continental affairs, was interested in British
commerce and trade
 Sought to prevent political reaction from seeping into
Spanish Latin America
 Sought to exploit the revolutions in Latin America to
crush the Spanish monopoly on trade
 Britain recognized the Spanish ex-colonies as
independent nations
BALKAN NATIONALISM
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Numerous ethnic groups wanted
independence, including Greeks, Serbs,
Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians
 Serbs
and Greeks gained independence in 1830
and 1821, from the Ottoman Empire
 Serbs envisioned a "Greater Serbia", including
Ottoman and Austrian controlled Serbs
 Most
immediate cause of World War I
GREEK REVOLUTION OF 1821
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Attracted liberals and Romantics from all over Europe as a "rebirth of ancient
Greek democracy"
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Ottomans could hardly hold on to its European holdings
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Many fought among the revolutionaries
European powers wanted Balkans
Could not determine what to do if Ottoman’s fell apart
Britain, France, and Russia
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An independent Greece would benefit them strategically and maintain domestic
status quo
1827 - Treaty of London signed, demanding Turkish recognition of Greek
independence
1828 - Russia sent troops into Ottoman Romania
1829 - Treaty of Adrianople
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Russia gained control of Romania
Ottoman Empire would have to allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the fate of
Greece
1830 - Second Treaty of London affirms an independent Greek Kingdom
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Otto I, the Bavarian King's son, becomes the first king of Greece
SERBIAN INDEPENDENCE
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1804-1813 – Kara George waged a guerilla war against the
Ottoman Empire
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Built national self-identity
Attracted attention of the great powers
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few Serbs lived within the autonomy
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Pressured the Ottomans to extend Serbian borders
1815-1816 Milos negotiated greater administrative
autonomy for some Serbian territory,
1830 - Serbia formally given independence
1833 - Milos becoming hereditary prince
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1856 -Serbia became under collective protection of the
great powers
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Serbs would seek more territory, creating tension with Austria and the
other minority groups in Serbia
Deeper relationship had begun between Serbia and Russia
NOVEMBER INSURRECTION IN POLAND
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Since the Congress of Vienna,
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Grand Duke Constantine controlled the government,
Tsar was the official King of Poland
Polish aristocrats and Sejm fought with their Russian overlords for the
Russians' constant violation of the Polish Constitution
Liberal revolutions in France and Belgium encouraged Polish
nationalists but had the reverse effect on the Russian Tsar
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The Russians planned to use the Polish Army to crush the revolutions
The Poles protested and a riot in Warsaw on November 29 soon spread to
revolution across the country
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December 13, 1830 - Sejm declared a national uprising and officially
dethroned Nicholas I on January 25, 1831
 Neither Britain, nor revolutionary France, supported the Insurrection
 Prussia and Austria deliberately made it hard for the rebels
 By the end of 1831, the Insurrection had fallen, the troops disarmed
in Prussia
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February 1832 - The Tsar issued the Organic Statute, making Poland a
part of Russia
BELGIAN REVOLUTION
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Causes
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Since 1815, Belgium had been merged with the
Kingdom of Holland
Two countries differed in culture and economy
 Belgians refused to accept Dutch rule
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Encouraged by the July Revolution in France
Outbreak
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August 25, 1830 - Riots broke out in Brussels
Municipal authorities and property-owners formed a provisional
government
 Attempt at compromise failed and troops sent by King William of
Holland were defeated by November 10
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National congress wrote a liberal constitution, which was
put into effect in 1831
INTERNATIONAL REACTIONS
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Major powers saw the Belgian Revolution as a distortion of the borders
set by the Congress of Vienna, but none were willing to act
 Russia was fighting the Polish rebels
 Prussia and the German Confederation were crushing insurgencies
in their own land
 Austria was crushing disturbances in Italy
 France favored Belgian independence in the hopes of dominating it
 Britain would tolerate Belgian liberalism as long as it was not
influenced by other nations
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December 1830 - Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Minister,
gathered the major powers in London to persuade them to recognize
Belgium as a neutral independent state
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July 1831 - Leopold of Saxe-Coburg became King
Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality
REPRESSION IN BRITAIN
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Prime Minister Lord Liverpool
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1815 - Corn Law
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Unprepared for the emergence of the internal
problems after the Napoleonic wars
Tory ministry sought to placate and protect the
interests of the landed and wealthy classes
Maintain high prices for domestic grain through
import duties on foreign grain
1816 - Parliament abolished the income tax
for the wealthy,
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Replaced it with excise taxes on consumer goods
paid by the wealthy and the poor
ENGLISH DISCONTENTMENT
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Lower classes began to doubt the wisdom of the
rulers
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Calls for reform were intensified
Radical newspapers formed
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Demanding change of the political system, including William
Cobbett's Political Registrar
Government
Feared workers as possible repetitions of France's sans-culottes
ready to murder the elites
 Regarded the radical leaders, including Cobbett, John
Cartwright, and Henry Hunt as demagogues betraying national
allegiances
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December 1816 - Discontent mass meeting occurred at
Spa Fields;
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Government reacted by passing the Coercion Act of March 1817,
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Suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against seditious
gatherings
"PETERLOO"
After temporary stability, radical reformism
grew again
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August 16, 1819 - Radicals met in Manchester
at Saint Peter's Fields
Royal troops were called to keep order
 Panic broke out, making the massacre famed as the
"Peterloo Massacre"
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Liverpool supported the Manchester
administration's decision
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Became determined to stop the radical movements
Radical leaders were arrested
THE SIX ACTS
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December 1819 - Six Acts passed
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Forbade large unauthorized public meetings
Raised the fines for seditious libel
Sped up the trials of political agitators
Increased newspaper taxes
Prohibited training of armed groups
Allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed counties
February 1820- the Cato Street Conspiracy was discovered
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Under the leadership of a man named Thistlewood, extreme radicals
plotted to assassinate the entire British Cabinet
Leaders were arrested and tried, four of them being executed
Conspiracy served only to discredit the reform movement
1848 REVOLUTIONS
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Series of liberal/nationalistic revolutions erupted across Continent, similar
conditions:
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Dynamic force for change originated with political liberals;
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severe food shortages
widespread unemployment
bad living condition
Extreme nationalism, especially in Austria
pushed for more civil liberty representation unregulated economy; motivated by
British success
liberals tried to motivate urban working classes, then they began to fight each
other
Results stunning:
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French monarchy fell, others shaken;
revolutions were false spring, didn’t establish liberal/national states;
liberals isolated themselves from working class, fell easy prey to reactionary
armies