Transcript Reformation and Renaissance

Reformation
and
Renaissance
Fiscal-Military States and Religious Upheavals
• European population recovered following Black Death in 1348.
– Population grew to 120 million by 1750.
– Much of Europe was divided politically into independent or autonomous units.
• Competition between states and units
– Particularly France and Habsburg Spain.
• Sixteenth century began with consolidation of power.
– France took over Burgundy and attempted to take over Italian cities.
– Habsburg Charles V proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor, and acquired Bohemia
and part of Hungary.
• Some states acquired power and land:
– Poland, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia.
• Military innovations of the seventeenth century led to
larger and more uniform armies.
– Flintlock muskets
– Uniforms
– Peacetime training
• Sweden introduced the line infantry, of three lines of
muskets.
• New larger militaries required more taxpayer money.
– New taxes limited by opposition of noble classes, cities, and
villagers.
– Tax limits led many countries to borrow money or sell offices.
•
• Netherlands was an exception.
– As its urban population grew, it increased fees, and revenues
from charters.
Henry VIII
1509 – 1547
Charles V
1516 – 1558
Francis I
1515 – 1547
Suleiman
1529 – 1566
Ivan IV
1533 – 1547
Humayun
1530 – 1556
The Hapsburg Empire
– Flanders
– Burgundy,
– Naples
– Sicily
– Austria
– Spain
– Aztec Empire
– Inca Empire
Who were the Hapsburgs?
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor
Mary, Duchess of Burgundy
(Austria, Burgundy
and Burgundian Netherlands)
Philip II, “the Handsome”
Ferdinand II and Isabella I
(Spain)
Joanna, “the Mad”
Charles I (of Spain)
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Religious Discontent
• Laypeople and lower clergy uneasy about
alliances between upper clergy and rulers.
– Papacy trying to regain power after Great Schism.
– Lay piety growing,
• printing press (from c. 1450)
• popularity of devotional tracts.
• Church Schisms
– East-West Schism - 1058
– Western Schism - 1378 – 1418
– Reformation - Begins in 1517
• Throughout the fifteenth century, laity of all
classes was involved with faith,
– Donations,
– Mass
– Sacraments
– Study groups.
• Papacy involved with politics
• . . . supported by dues and sale of
indulgences.
Indulgence:
“. . . the extra-sacramental remission of the
temporal punishment due, in God's justice, to
sin that has been forgiven, which remission is
granted by the Church . . .”
• Johann Tetzel, a Dominican,
began to sell indulgences in
Germany
"As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul
from purgatory springs."
Martin Luther (1481 – 1546)
• An Augustinian monk in Wittenberg , Saxony
• In 1517 wrote a letter to his archbishop with 95 theses about
the sale of indulgences, which he saw as contrary to scripture.
– Theses translated into German and the Protestant Reformation began.
• Luther proposed four reforms of the church (the basis of
Protestantism).
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Salvation by faith alone.
Priesthood of all believers, and no separate clergy as mediators.
German princes should reform the church in their lands.
Bible translated into German and made available to all.
• The Duke of Saxony supported
Luther’s reforms and created a state
church.
• Emperor Charles V opposed Luther,
– but his attention was divided
between Ottoman threat and rivalry
with France.
• Peasants across Germany supported
Luther, which led to the Peasants’
War and the death of 100,000
people.
• Some German princes, the Danish
and Swedish kings, and Henry VIII of
England created national Protestant
churches.
• Francis I of France
– Supported the pope
– Exiled French Protestants.
• John Calvin, a French lawyer, went into exile in
Switzerland.
– Created Protestant cities, such as Geneva.
– Wrote the Institutes of the Christian Religion.
• In contrast to Luther, Calvin believed in:
– Predestination
– Enforced morality
– Independent congregations not run by the state.
• Counter-Reformation was the church’s attempt to reform
while reaffirming belief in:
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Good works
Priestly mediation
Monasticism
Centralized control.
• Sale of indulgences were phased out along with other
“corrupt” practices.
• Papal inquisition revived
– Index of Prohibited Books published.
• Jesuit order, created by Ignatius Loyola, devoted itself to
education and missionary work in converting Protestant
and non-Christians.
• French Calvinists, known as Huguenots, represented 10
percent of the French population.
– Too many to imprison and execute
– Organized as a separate church.
• Catholics and Huguenots often fought, and interrupted
each other’s services.
• Queen mother, Catherine de’Medicis, acting as regent
for her son, made Huguenot worship legal as long as it
took place outside cities.
– Duke of Lorraine killed 74 Huguenots in violation of this
order.
– Violence escalated to a civil war from 1562 to 1598.
• “The Wars of Religion”
• Catherine arranged a marriage between her
daughter and the leader of the Huguenots,
King Henry III of Navarre.
– On St. Bartholomew’s Day (August 24, 1572),
shortly after the wedding,
– Catholics killed thousands of Huguenots across
France.
The War of the Three Henrys
1587 – 1589
• The Catholic League: Henry, Duke of Guise
– Supported by Spain
– Assassinated by the King’s guards
• The Royalists: Henry III of France
– Assassinated by a fanatic monk
• The Huguenots: Henry IV of Navarre
– Becomes King of France
• In 1589, Henry became Henry IV of France and
a Catholic.
– “Paris is worth a Mass.”
– Henry issued the Edict of Nantes allowing religious
freedom for Protestants.
– In 1685 Louis XIV revoked the Edict.
Spain and Holland
• Many in the Netherlands converted to Calvinism.
• Philip II, king of Spain, became the ruler of the
Netherlands in 1556.
– Encouraged Jesuits and the Inquisition to persecute
Calvinists.
– Dutch Protestants turned war of religion into war of
liberation from Spain.
• United Provinces of the Dutch Republic created
– A mixed religious population and tolerant.
Charles V abdicated in 1555
His son, Phillip II:
Spain
The Netherlands
Lombardy
Naples – Sicily
His brother, Ferdinand:
The Hapsburg holdings
Title of “Emperor”
• Henry VIII made England Protestant
– “Church of England little changed from the Catholic
Church
– Not reformed enough for radical “Puritans.”
• Edward VI retains the Church of England
• Mary
– Restores the Catholic Church
– Marries Phillip II of Spain
• Elizabeth restores the Church of England
• James VI of Scotland became James I of England in 1603.
– Collected taxes without summoning Parliament, who became
resentful.
– Puritans had a small majority in the House of Commons
• wanted more religious reform
• fiscal control.
• English Civil War, 1642 – 1651
– Charles I (son of James) executed in 1649
– Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell became “Lord Protector.”
• Moderates recalled Stuarts (Charles II) in 1661
– but problems with Parliament and Catholicism.
– James II deposed in 1688 in the Glorious Revolution
– William of Orange and Mary Stuart, the new monarchs
• Subordinate to Parliament
• K. Thirty Years’ War began with tensions in Bohemia between Catholic
emperor Ferdinand
• II and Calvinists.
• 1. Catholic princes suppressed Bohemian Protestants and chased their
leader into
• Northern Germany.
• a. Took advantage of the opportunity to capture Lutheran territories.
• 2. Catholics successful until Lutheran King Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden
• intervened to help German Lutherans.
• a. Gustavus also trying to create a fiscal-military state around the Baltic.
• b. Louis XIII of France, although Catholic, supported Gustavus to prevent
• Ferdinand from gaining more power.
• 3. French intervention kept war going until Treaty of Westphalia in 1648,
which
• allowed religious freedom in Germany.
• L. Louis XIV, king of France in 1643, created an
absolutist state.
• 1. Reduced power of nobles; required them to be
in residence at Versailles.
• 358
• 2. Relied on salaried bureaucrats to collect taxes.
• a. Sold privileges of collecting taxes and
bureaucratic jobs, in exchange for estates,
• titles, or hereditary offices.
• M. Tsar Peter I (1682–1725), the Great,
Westernized and modernized Russia.
• 1. Paid Western advisors and administrators in
estates, which came with serfs.
• 2. Reorganized the military, made up of landed
nobility and conscripted soldiers.
• a. Took a census to determine tax collection, and
reclassified many former free
• Russians as serfs.
• N. Hohenzollern dynasty of Prussia used army to centralize
authority over aristocracy.
• 1. Becoming kings in 1701, the Hohenzollerns set out to
expand Prussia’s land holdings
• through an aggressive military.
• O. English model of constitutionalism contrasts with
absolute monarchies.
• 1. Still a fiscal-military state, but dominated by Parliament
rather than monarch.
• 2. Central Bank of England used for tax collection and
distribution of revenue.
• 3. Powerful navy supplemented with mercenary land
troops.
The Renaissance
• Italy more aware of classical past
– led to Renaissance thought called Humanism.
– Italian scholars invited Byzantines to bring manuscripts of Plato and Aristotle,
and other Greek and Hellenistic writings.
– Technical innovations aided in the translations:
• new simplified Latin script
• paper from Islamic Spain
• Printing press
– Flood of new books and translations inspired the study of philology.
• Erasmus published a Greek and Latin translation of the New Testament.
• Medieval documents such as the Donation of Constantine proven to be a
fraudbased on language and textual research.
• Renaissance political theory also became sharply critical of the traditional.
– Machiavelli wrote of an intuitive political ability called virtu.
– Successful rulers used any means necessary to retain power.
• Renaissance art also looked to the classical past for models.
– Donatello and Brunelleschi inspired by Roman imperial statues
and ruins.
– Followed da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.
• Renaissance style also flourished in northern Germany, in
music, and theatre.
– Musical innovations include development of counterpoint.
– Theatrical changes include secular themes, as in commedia
dell’arte.
– Shakespeare typifies the new theatre: Greek and Roman models
with contemporary themes and characters.
Pietro Perugino (1481–82)
Donatello, 1386 - 1466
Brunelleschi, 1377 – 1446
Leonardo da Vinci, 1452 - 1519
Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475 – 1564
Raphael Sanzio da Urbino, 1483 -1520
New Science
• . . . replaced centuries of Aristotelian belief in an earthcentered universe.
• Nicholas Copernicus
– challenged traditional Aristotelian–Ptolemaic thought about the
universe.
– conceived of a heliocentric universe instead.
• Galileo used the new telescope and supported Copernican
heliocentrism.
– Counter-Reformation Inquisition objected apparent
contradiction to the Bible.
– In 1632 Galileo placed under house arrest and renounced
heliocentrism.
• Isaac Newton (d. 1727) made two important
contributions to New Science:
– calculus
– a unified theory of physics and astronomy.
• Theory of a deterministic universe governed
solely by mathematical principles.
• New Science used and created technical innovations
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Telescope
Microscope
Thermometer
Air pumps
Barometer.
• Barometer used by Torricelli and Pascal to discover the
vacuum, which will contribute to the development of
the steam engine.
– Piston driven by steam first developed by French Huguenot
Papin.
• New Science led others to challenge scholastic
theology and Aristotelian thought.
– Rene Descartes decides that the only reliable thought
was mathematical
– Sensory knowledge could not be trusted.
– “Cartesian rationalism”
• Francis Bacon invented the empirical method and
inductive reasoning.
– Experimentation and observance of phenomena must
precede theory.