Transcript Memory - Doral Academy Preparatory

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Memory
MEMORY & MEMORY PROCESSING
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Memory: the mental capacity to encode, store, and
retrieve information
Similar to how a computer handles information*
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Encoding: initial processing of information that leads to
a memory; turns sensory input and perceptions into
mental representations
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Storage: retention over time of encoding information
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Retrieval: the recovery of a mental representation at a
later time
MEMORY & MEMORY PROCESSING
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Information Processing Theory: based on the
idea that humans process the information they
receive, rather than merely responding to
stimuli. This perspective equates the mind to a
computer, which is responsible for analyzing
information from the environment
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Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: assume
that cognitive processes depend on patterns of
activation in highly interconnected computational
networks that resemble neural networks
MEMORY & MEMORY PROCESSING
MEMORY STRATEGIES
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Attention
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Use a variety of sensory modalities:
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Auditory
Visual
Tactile/Vestibular
Olfactory/Gustatory
Use Intersensory Redundancy
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Simultaneously using multiple sensory modalities facilitates learning and
memory
 Auditory + Visual + Tactile
Using a specific rhythm or tempo aids in the memory process
SENSORY MEMORY
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Sensory Memory: The initial, momentary storage
of information, only lasting an instant
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Echoic memory: stores incoming auditory information
from the ears for 2-3 seconds
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What did you just say? Oh wait, got it…
Iconic Memory: memory specifically for the visual
system; allows a very large amount of visual
information to be stored for a brief period of time
SHORT TERM MEMORY
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Short Term Memory (STM): A limited capacity to hold a small
amount of information in mind in an active, readily available
state for a short amount of time
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Duration for STM (without rehearsal) is only a few seconds
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Measures of short-term memory are often included in
intelligence tests
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Magic number 7 plus or minus 2
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Can be improved by “chunking” information
7867121903
(786) 712 -1903
WORKING MEMORY
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Working Memory: memory resource that is used to
complete tasks and mentally work-through problems
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Phonological loop: holds and manipulates speech-based
information
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Visuospatial sketchpad: holds and manipulates visual
information – a mental picture
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Central executive: controls attention and integrates
information from multiple senses into one cohesive
experience
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Episodic buffer: allows for the integration of current
sensations with past experiences in order to make sense of
the world
LONG TERM MEMORY
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Long Term Memory (LTM): an infinitely large
and indefinitely long storehouse of all memories
including events, facts, emotions, skills, words,
rules, etc
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Long term memory constitutes each person’s total
knowledge of the world and themselves
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Long term memory organizes information into
categories (concepts; schemas) and in hierarchical
levels
LONG TERM MEMORY
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Explicit Memory: the conscious, intentional
remembering of previous experiences and
information
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Implicit Memory: memory in which previous
experiences help in the performance of a task without
conscious awareness of the previous experience
EXPLICIT MEMORY
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Explicit Memory:
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Autobiographical Episodic Memory: memory of personal
events from your point of view
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Emerges around age 3, previously referred to as “infantile amnesia”
Semantic Memory: all other explicit memory; includes facts,
individual recognition, vocabulary, rules of grammar and
math, and rules of logic.
LONG TERM MEMORY
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Implicit Memory
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Procedural Memory: the memories of how to do
things
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Includes both conscious and nonconscious processing
When first acquiring a new skill, you are much more
consciously aware and monitoring the different steps – with
practice, this process becomes automatic
Example: riding a bike
MEMORY ODDITIES
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Eidetic Memory: also known as photographic memory or total
recall; the ability to remember images, sounds, or objects with
perfect precision
 May or may not really exist
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: the temporary inability to
remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s
just out of reach
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Occurs approx. 1/week and increases with age
Flashbulb Memory: an experience that was encoded during an
emotionally-charged event and can be remembered extremely
vividly
 Can be personal or public/historical
ENCODING ODDITIES
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Serial Position Effect: items in the beginning and end of
a list of unrelated items are easier to remember; items in
the middle are most often lost
 Primacy
 Recency
Temporal Distinctiveness: the extent to which a
particular item stands out from or is distinct from other
items
Priming: an implicit memory phenomenon in which
exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a
subsequent stimulus without conscious awareness
MEMORY RETRIEVAL
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Retrieval Cues: internal or external stimulus
available to help with the retrieval of a memory
Recall: a method of retrieval in which an
individual must reproduce the information
previously presented
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Essay questions
Recognition: a method of retrieval in which an
individual is required to identify stimuli as
having been experienced before
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Multiple choice questions
CONTEXT DEPENDENT LEARNING & MEMORY
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Transfer-appropriate processing: In order to
retrieve or recall the information effectively, it
may help to be in the same physical environment
and physiological context as when the
information was originally encoded
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Environment: being in the same place as when the
information was encoded
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Physiology: having the same physiology as when the
information was encoded
ENCODING
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Levels-of-processing theory: the deeper the
level at which information was processed, the
more likely it is to be retained in memory
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Involves more analysis, interpretation, comparison,
and elaboration
We are more likely to remember something
when, at the time of encoding, we relate the new
information to existing personal memories
ENCODING AND MEMORY STRATEGIES
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Elaborative Rehearsal: while rehearsing the
information, you enrich the original information
with a mental image or story
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Spider and structures of the ear
Mnemonics: devices the encode long series of
facts by associating them with familiar and
previously encoding information
Acronyms and Poems (Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally)
 Method of Loci
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MEMORY INTERFERENCE
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Proactive Interference: past memories making
it more difficult to encode and retrieve new
information
Retroactive Interference: acquisition of new
information occurs when the acquisition of new
information makes it harder for you to remember
older information
METAMEMORY
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Metamemory: thinking about remembering –
being aware of what you remember and what you
have forgotten
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Feelings-of-Knowing: subjective sensations that
you do have information stored in memory and that it
is correct
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Judgments-of-Learning: estimates of how well you
have learned something
MEMORY & EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
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Eyewitness testimony is a lot more inaccurate
than you would think!
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Eyewitness testimony can be influenced by
questioning techniques
Leading questions
 Misinformation
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People, especially children, can be extremely
suggestible
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Memory is fluid
MEMORY
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Reality Monitoring: the process of deciding
whether memories are based on external sources
(reality) or internal sources (imagination)
Source Monitoring: making attributions about
the origins of memories
MEMORY & THE BRAIN
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Engram: a hypothetical physical area in the brain that
corresponds to a particular memory
 There actually is no “one” place for each memory, but rather a
memory is distributed over many connections in the cerebral
cortex
Consolidation: a hypothetical process involving the conversion
of information to long-term memory
 Occurs during REM sleep
Hippocampus: plays a central role in the encoding and
consolidation of memories
Amygdala: involved in memories involving emotion
MEMORY DISORDERS
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Dementia: the development of multiple cognitive deficits including
memory impairment that are due to the direct physiological effect of
a general medical condition
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Effects the ability to learn new material and the ability to
remember previously learned material
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Also includes:
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decline in the ability to recognize objects (agnosia)
deterioration of language function (aphasia)
inability to perform motor tasks (apraxia)
Associated with many medical conditions including:
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Alzheimer’s Disease
Parkinson’s Disease
HIV
Head trauma
MEMORY DISORDERS
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Alzheimer’s Disease: A progressive brain disorder that leads to a
gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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Begins with minor forgetfulness
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As the disease progresses, individuals suffer confusion,
irritability, aggression, mood swings, trouble with language,
and long-term memory loss
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Currently no cure, treatments only address some symptoms
and improve quality of life
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Bodily functions are also lost, leading ultimately to death
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4th leading cause of death among adults in the U.S.
MEMORY DISORDERS
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Alzheimer’s Disease
MEMORY DISORDERS
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Amnesia: a failure of memory caused by physical
injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma
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Anterograde Amnesia: inability to form new explicit
memories for events that occur after the time of
damage (HM; Memento)
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Retrograde Amnesia: an inability to retrieve
memories from the time before damage