Transcript Organs[1][1] - Allium-textile

By Jessica Lewis
ORGANS
1. Skeletal system
Functions:
 The Skeletal System
serves many important
functions. It provides
the shape and form for
our bodies. It also
supports, protects
allows our bodies to
move, allows our bodies
to function, produces
blood for the body, and
also store minerals.
Functions: cont.
 Many vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. One
example is the brain, it is protected by the skull while the lungs
and heart are protected by the ribcage. Our bodies function
because there is an interaction between our muscles and skeletal
system. Muscles are connected to the bone by tendons. Now,
bones are connected to each other by ligaments . Muscles which
cause movement of a joint are connected to two different bones
and contract to pull them together. An example would be the
contraction of the biceps and a relaxation of the triceps. Blood
cells are produced by the marrow located in some bones. Around
2.6 million red blood cells are produced every second by the bone
marrow to replace the ones that have become worn out and
destroyed by the liver. Bones serve as a storage area for minerals
such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess is present in the
blood, buildup will occur within the bones. When the supply of
these minerals that is with in the blood is low, it is withdrawn
from the bones and is replenished.
Divisions of the Skeleton:
Axial:
Appendicular:
 This consists of bones that
 This skeleton is composed
1.
2.
3.
4.
form an axis of the body
and protect the organs of
the head, neck and trunk. It
also supports these organs.
These bones protect the:
The Skull
The Sternum
The Ribs
The Vertebral Column
1.
2.
3.
4.
of bones that anchor the
appendages to the axial
skeleton. The organs that
are involved with this are:
The Upper Extremities
The Lower Extremities
The Shoulder Girdle
The Pelvic Girdle
The Skull:
 Your skull provides the
framework for most of your
sensory organs, such as eyes,
ears, tongue, nose, and some
skin. Your skull is made up of 22
cranial or facial bones, plus the
three in each ear. As a baby
you have more. Most are fixed
joints separated by cartilage as
a baby, but fuse together a
later as you grow. Once fused,
they are locked together,
forming an immovable joints,
called a suture-sound.
The Backbone:

The backbone, or vertebral or spinal
column, though called a "bone", is
really a flexible structure made of 26
bones. As a baby, you have 33
vertebrae, or back bones, but the
lower four fuse to form the coccyxsound, and the next lower five fuse
to become the sacrum. The
backbone serves several important
functions itself. It provides structure
from which all other upper body
structures branch, and it protects
the spinal nerve, which is the
"highway" that all the information
your brain sends to your body
travels. The backbone is
approximately 70 cm, long and is
separated into five regions.
The Thorax:
 The thorax is basically your chest, comprising your breast
bone and ribs. Your breast bone, or sternum-sound, is around
6 inches (15 cm) tall, spanning about half the length of your
ribs. The twelve ribs form the cage of your chest. One of the
primary necessities of the ribs is to protect your heart and
lungs. Your top seven ribs are called true ribs because they
connected to the sternum. The next four ribs are called false
ribs because they attach to the sternum so indirectly if at all. If
they do not connect to the sternum, they do connect to upper
cartilage for support. The last two ribs are called floating ribs
because they do not connect to anywhere.
Types of Bone:
Long Bones:
Short Bones:
 The long bones are longer
 Short bones are a cubed
then they are wide and
they work as a lever. The
bones of the upper
extremities are where
these bones could be
found. The upper
extremities are the
humerus, tibia, femur,
ulna, metacarpals ect.
like and short. You can find
them in wrists and ankles.
Types of Bone: cont.
Flat Bones:
Irregular Bones:
 Flat bones have more of a
 Irregular bones are the
broad service and are used
to protect organs and
attachments of muscles.
For example the rib cage,
cranial bones, and the
bones of shoulder girdle.
bones that do not fall into
any of the other
categories. They all vary in
size and shape and some
can be found in the skull.
Bone Composition:
 Bones are composed of
tissue that may take
one of two forms.
Compact or spongy.
Compact bone is very
hard and dense and
forms sort of a
protective shield
around the exterior of
the bone.
Bone Composition: cont.
 Spongy bone is inside of
the bone and has a lot of
holes that reside within it.
You can find spongy bone
in most all bones. The bone
tissue is made up of
several kinds of bone cells
that are imbedded in sort
of a web or inorganic salts
like calcium. This gives the
bon e strength and
collagenous fibers allow
the bone to be fexible.
2. Muscular System
Function:
 The main role of the
muscular system is to
provide
movement. Muscles work
in pairs to move limbs and
provide the organism with
mobility. Muscles also
control the movement of
materials through some
organs, such as the
stomach and intestine, and
the heart and circulatory
system.
Muscle Tissues
Cardiac Muscle:
 The cardiac muscles is the
muscle of the heart itself. The
cardiac muscle is the tissue that
makes up the wall of the heart
called the mydocardium. Also
like the skeletal muscles, the
cardiac muscle is striated and
contracts through the sliding
filament method. However it is
different from other types of
muscles because it forms
branching fibers. Unlike the
skeletal muscles, the cardiac
muscle is attached together
instead of been attach to a bone.
Skeletal Muscle:

The skeletal muscle makes up
about 40 % of an adults body
weight. It has stripe-like markings,
or striations. The skeletal muscles
is composed of long muscle fibers.
Each of these muscles fiber is a
cell which contains several nuclei.
The nervous system controls the
contraction of the muscle. Many
of the skeletal muscle contractions
are automatic. However we still
can control the action of the
skeletal muscle. And it is because
of this reason that the skeletal
muscle is also called voluntary
muscle.
Smooth Muscle:
 Much of our internal organs is
made up of smooth muscles.
They are found in the urinary
bladder, gallbladder, arteries,
and veins. Also the digestive
tract is made up of smooth
muscle as well. The smooth
muscles are controlled by the
nervous system and
hormones. We cannot
consciously control the
smooth muscle that is why
they are often called
involuntary muscles.
Major Skeletal Muscles:
Facial:
Neck:


In the facial are one finds all the
muscles which move the face.
Orbicularis oculi-sound are the
two muscles that move the eye
are. Frontalis-sound and
Temporalis-sound are the two
muscles which move the
forehead and sides of your head.
Zygomaticus-sound ands
Masseter-sound are the two
muscle that work in conjunction
to move your jaw and upper lip
area. Orbicularis oris-sound is the
muscle which moves your lips
The neck area is almost entirely
moved by the sternohyoid-sound and
Sternocleidomastoid-sound. These
muscles allow the neck to move your
head left and right. They work with
the platysma muscle to control how
far you can move your head left and
right. What allows your head to move
up and down is the trapeziums'sound. The trapezius is so large that it
extend down to the shoulder and
thorax area. The trapezius is a good
example of how some muscles are
named by their shape. the
trapeziums looks just like a trapezoid.
Major Skeletal Muscles:cont.
Shoulder:
Arm:

 Most known amongst teenage
A group of muscles all work together
to move the whole shoulder area.
This group takes into account the
trapezius-sound, deltoid-sound,
infraspinatus-sound, teres majorsound, and the rhomboid majorsound. The rhomboid major is called
so because its shaped like the
geometric shape of a rhombus.
Along with the help of the ball and
socket joint-hyperlink in your
shoulder, these group of muscles
allow your arm to throw a softball,
pick things over your head, and give
your arms a good strecth early in the
morning.
weight lifters is the arm area.
The famous bicep brachii-sound
is the muscle that allows you to
bring your forearm close to your
body and form a huge ball of
muscle which catches a lot of
attention amongst weight
lifters. The tricep brachii-sound
and brachialis-sound are the
two other muscles located in the
arm region.
Major Skeletal Muscles:cont.
Forearm:
Thorax:

 The thorax is the set of
A majority of the muscle in the
forearm help control a part of the
arm. Amongst these is the
Berachiodialis major-sound,
palmaris longus-sound, and Flexor
carpi radialis-sound. The name of
the flexor carpi radialis is a good
example of how muscles are named
by their function and location. This
muscle is named carpi because of
the bones that it helps move, the
carples. Also, the name of radialis is
made by the bone that its attached
to, the radius.
muscles which carrying your
head, arms, stomach, and any
other upper body areas.
These muscles are the
trapezius-sound and
latissimus dorsi-sound.
Usually, the majority of the
muscles of the thorax can be
damaged easily is one dose
not stretch before exercise, or
lifts a heave load.
Major Skeletal Muscles:cont.
Abdomen:
Hip:
 The abdominal area consists of
 Only two muscles make up
the muscles that allows you to
bend down and move your waist
from side to side. The interanal
oblique-sound and external
oblique-sound are the muscles
that move your body from left to
right. The Transversus
abdominus-sound and Rectus
abdominus-sound, along with
the trapezius-sound an
latissimus dorsi-sound allow you
to bend down and grab objects.
the hip area. These are the
gluteus medius-sound and
gluteus maximus-sound.
Probably the laziest
muscles in the whole
system the gluteus set of
muscles are used only to sit
down on.
Major Skeletal Muscles:cont.
Pelvis/ Thigh:
Leg:

 Helping the thigh region support
An overlapping of muscles is what makes
this area so firm. The pelvis area is
usually referred to as the upper part of
the leg. Muscles like the pectineus-sound
and illiopsoas-sound , which help
support the upper leg area are known as
pelvic muscles. Thigh muscles are very
rich in capillaries and support the whole
body. The upper thigh muscles are
abductor longus-sound, Gracilis-sound,
Sartorius-sound, and Tensor fasciae
latea. The lower thigh muscles are rectus
femoris-sound, vastus lateralis-sound
and medialis-sound. Located in the back
of your leg are the hamstrings-sound.
These muscles help you run, jump, and
walk!
the body is the Leg region.
These muscles like the
Gastrocnemius-sound, soleussound, porenius longus-sound,
and Tibialis anterior-sound
absorb the impact when one
walks and runs. they also give
beter cordination for moving.
the thigh region trust the body
forward while the leg region
coordinates where it should be
thrusted and where it should
stand.
3. Circulatory system
Function:
 The main role of the
circulatory system is to
transport nutrients,
gases (such as oxygen
and CO2), hormones
and wastes through
the body.
Parts of The Circulatory
System
1. The Heart
2. The Blood
3. The Blood Cells
The Heart:
 The heart beats about 3
BILLION times during an
average lifetime. It is a
muscle about the size of
your fist. The heart is
located in the center of
your chest slightly to the
left. It's job is to pump your
blood and keep the blood
moving throughout your
body.
The Blood:

The blood is an amazing substance that
is constantly flowing through our bodies.

Your blood is pumped by your heart.

Your blood travels through thousands of
miles of blood vessels right within your
own body.

Your blood carries nutrients, water,
oxygen and waste products to and from
your body cells.

A young person has about a gallon of
blood. An adult has about 5 quarts.

Your blood is not just a red liquid but
rather is made up of liquids, solids and
small amounts of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
The Blood Cells:
Red Blood Cells:
White Blood Cells:
 They are responsible for
 White Blood Cells help the
carrying oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Red Blood
Cells pick up oxygen in the
lungs and transport it to all
the body cells. After
delivering the oxygen to
the cells it gathers up the
carbon dioxide and
transports it back to the
lungs where it is removed.
body fight off germs.
White Blood Cells attack
and destroy germs when
they enter the body. When
you have an infection your
body will produce more
White Blood Cells to help
fight an infection.
The Blood Cells: cont.
Platelets:
 Platelets are blood cells that
help stop bleeding. When we cut
ourselves we have broken a
blood vessel and the blood leaks
out. In order to plug up the holes
where the blood is leaking from
the platelets start to stick to the
opening of the damaged blood
vessels. As the platelets stick to
the opening of the damaged
vessel they attract more
platelets, fibers and other blood
cells to help form a plug to seal
the broken blood vessel.
The Blood Vessels:
1. Arteries
2. Capillaries
3. Veins
4. Plasma
Arteries and Veins:
 Arteries are blood
vessels that carry
oxygen rich blood
AWAY from the heart.
 Veins carry blood back
to your heart
Capillaries:
 Capillaries are tiny
blood vessels as thin or
thinner than the hairs
on your head.
Capillaries connect
arteries to veins. Food
substances(nutrients),
oxygen and wastes
pass in and out of your
blood through the
capillary walls.
Plasma:
 Plasma is the liquid
part of the blood.
Approximately half of
your blood is made of
plasma. The plasma
carries the blood cells
and other components
throughout the body.
Plasma is made in the
liver.
4. Nervous system
Function:
 The main role of the
nervous system is to relay
electrical signals through
the body. The nervous
system directs behaviour
and movement and, along
with the endocrine system,
controls physiological
processes such as
digestion, circulation, etc.
The Peripheral Nervous System:
 The nervous system is made up
of nerve cells or neurons that are
"wired" together throughout the
body, somewhat like
communication system.
Neurons carry messages in the
form of an electrical impulses.
The messages move from one
neuron to another to keep the
body functioning.
 Neurons have a limited ability to
repair themselves. Unlike other
body tissues, they cannot also
be repaired if damaged due to
injury or disease.
Central Nervous System:
"Brain, Spinal Cord & Senses"

The brain keeps the body in order.
It helps to control all of the body
systems and organs, keeping
them working like they should.
The brain also allows us to think,
feel, remember and imagine. In
general, the brain is what makes
us behave as human beings.

The brain communicates with the
rest of the body through the spinal
cord and the nerves. They tell the
brain what is going on in the body
at all times. This system also gives
instructions to all parts of the
body about what to do and when
to do it.
Central Nervous System: cont.
 Nerves divide many times as
they leave the spinal cord so
that they may reach all parts of
the body. The thickest nerve is 1
inch thick and the thinnest is
thinner than a human hair. Each
nerve is a bundle of hundreds or
thousands of neurons (nerve
cells). The spinal cord runs down
a tunnel of holes in your
backbone or spine. The bones
protect it from damage. The
cord is a thick bundle of nerves,
connecting your brain to the
rest of your body.
Central Nervous System: cont.

There are five main senses - touch, smell,
taste, hearing and sight. These are the
external sensory system, because they tell
you about the world outside your body.
Your senses tell you what is happening in
the outside world. Your body's sense organs
constantly send signals about what is
happening outside and inside it to your
control center - the brain.

The cerebrum is part of the forebrain. The
cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the
cerebrum. Certain areas of the cerebral
cortex are involved with certain functions.

Sensory areas such as touch, smell, taste,
hearing and sight receive messages from
the skin, nose, mouth, ears and eyes. We
feel, taste, hear and see when these
messages are received by the sensory parts
of the brain.
The Endocrine System:
 There is another system that
works with the brain and
nerves to keep the body in
order. This is the endocrine or
hormone system. It controls
the rate we grow, our feelings
of hunger, our body
temperature, and more. Glands
are organs that run the
endocrine system. The pituitary
gland, the pancreas, ovaries or
testes the thyroid gland, the
parathyroid gland, and the
adrenal glands are organs that
run the endocrine system.
Neurons:
Dendrite:

Dendrites are short, thick branched
extensions which extend like the roots of
a tree over other neurons or body cells.
The dendrites all branch off dendritic
spines, which in turn branch of the cell
body. Dendrites are the receptive sites of
the neurons. Here, the neurons receive
electric messages from other neurons or
body cells. The site where one dendrite
meets another neuron's impulse is called
the synapse. Usually, neurons have
hundreds of dendrite extensions. These
extensions are spread over a large area,
giving the neuron better reception of
signals. Some dendrites are specialized
for the accumulation of information.
These cells are finer than other dendrites
and found near the brain.

Also called the perikaryon-sound or somasound, the cell body contains a spherical nucleus
with a nucleolus and lots of cytoplasm. Like many
cells, the neuron cell body of the neuron contains
the usual cellular particles or organells-sound,
except centrioles-sound. Centrioles are the basis
by which cells are able to divide and form new
cells. Because the neurons lack centrioles , they
are unable to divide and reproduce themselves.
Therefore, if one should damage nerves, then
they are not able to be replaced. Nevertheless,
neurons do have specialized hardworking
endoplasmic reticulum-sound (ER), which help
transport proteins and molecules at high speeds
due to the fact that neurons work at lightning
speeds. Also, the neurofibrils, bundles of micro
filaments and micro tubules, which are important
in intracellular transport, are seen through the
body. A pigment called lipofuscin, which is
yellow-brown, is one of the many pigments
believed to be in the neuron.
Neurons: cont.

The axon is a long cylindrical tube, with the same consistent diameter, which runs
through the body for long or short lengths. For example, the axon of your neuron
controlling your toe, extends all the way from the lumbar back area. The axon
branches off a cone shaped region of the cell body called the axon hillock-sound
Axons diameters differ in many parts of the body, but the ruel is the thicker the axon,
the more message it transmits through the neurons. The main purpose of the axon is
to send impulses away from the cell body to neuron dendrite or other body cells
called effecter cells-sound. A nerve impulse travels from a dendrite, to the cell body,
and down the axon to thousands of branches called telondria which connect at a
synapse to dendrites from other neurons. Once the impulse reaches the synapse,
neurotransmitters, chemicals, which excite or calm effecter or neurons, diffuse into
the extra cellular space and reach the dendrite, once again turning into an impulse.
Protecting and insulating electric fibers from one another is the myelin sheath. It is a
whitish, fatty, segmented sheath which covers the majority of nerve fibers and helps
transmit nerve impulses faster. Throught the axon of the neuron, cells which protect
the neuron envelope . These cells forms slope like structures with indents in between
them called a Node of Ranvier-sound. The myelin sheath is exceedingly important
because one can lose control of your muscles due to the uncoordinated fibers of an
axon without myelin sheath
Nose:
 The olfactory or smell action is
quite simple. Once the smell of
food has reached your nose,
which is lined with hairs, it
travels to an olfactory bulb, a set
of sensory nerves. The nerve
impulses travel through the
olfactory tract, around, in a
circular way, the thalamus, and
finally to the smell sensory
cortex of your brain, located
between your eye and ear,
where it is interpreted to be
understood and memorized by
the body.
Eye:

Seeing is one of the most pleasing
senses of the nervous system. This
cherished action primarily
conducted by the lens, which
magnifies a seen image, vitreous
disc, which bends and rotates an
image against he retina, which
translates the image and light by a
set of cells. The retina is at the
back of the eye ball where rods
and cones structures along with
other cells and tissues covert the
image into nerve impulses which
are transmitted along the optic
nerve to the brain where it is kept
for memory.
Tongue:
 A set of microscopic buds on
the tongue divide everything
you eat and drink into four
kinds of taste: bitter, sour,
salty, and sweet. These buds
have taste pores, which
convert the taste into a nerve
impulse and sends the
impulse to the brain by a
sensory nerve fiber. Upon
receiving the message, your
brain classifies the different
kinds of taste. This is how you
can refer the taste of one kind
of food to another.
Ear:

Most people only relate the ear drum or
tympanic membrane as the only structure
in the ear. However, this is not true. The
cartilage over the cell ear is called the
auricle. This area serves as a protective
member to guard the inner ear where the
famous ear drum is located. The typmanic
membrane is divided into two layers. One
that goes to the pharynx and the other is a
mucus membrane. By putting pressure of
both membranes is the only way the ear
drum receives sound. Once the sound or
sound wave has entered the drum, it goes
to a large structure called the cochlea. In
this snail like structure, the sound waves
are divided into pitches. The vibration of
the pitches in the cochlea are measured
by the Corti. This organ transmits the
vibrational information to a nerve, which
sends it to the brain for interpretation and
memory.
5. Respiratory system
Function:
 The main role of the
respiratory system is to
provide gas exchange
between the blood and the
environment. Primarily,
oxygen is absorbed from
the atmosphere into the
body and carbon dioxide is
expelled from the body.
Nose and Nasal Cavity:

As you inhale, small specks of dirt are
trapped by many tiny hairs in your
nose. This cleans the air. The hairs stop
the dirt from going further in your
body. The moist inside surface in your
nose traps even smaller pieces of dirt.
The nasal cavity, the air passage
behind the nose, plays an important
role in breathing. The nasal cavity is
divided into a right and left
passageway. The tissue that covers the
wall of your nasal cavity contains
many blood vessels. Heat from the
blood in the vessels helps warm the air
as you breath. Moisture is added to
the air you breath by special cells in
the walls of the nasal cavity. The air is
warmed and moistened before it
reaches your lungs.
Windpipe and Bronchial Tree:

The windpipe joins the upper
respiratory tract to the lungs. The
bottom of the trachea splits into
two branches called bronchi. One
enters the right lung and one goes
to the left lung.

The bronchial tree's job is to spread
the air from the trachea over a very
wide area as quickly as possible. The
air passing through the windpipe
divides into two branches. These
divide into twigs called bronchioles.
These twigs open into little bags
called alveoli. The alveoli gives our
lungs a huge surface for absorbing
oxygen from the air.
Lungs:
 The lungs are protected by our
ribs. The lungs are the pickup
place for oxygen and the drop
off place for carbon dioxide. The
lungs are always working,
breathing in oxygen and
breathing out carbon dioxide.
 Blood is pumped into the lungs
from the heart through the
pulmonary arteries. Blood with
oxygen leaves the lungs through
the pulmonary veins and travels
to the heart. Oxygen is the fuel
that makes all the body
processes run.
The Pharynx:
 The pharynx, most
commonly known as the
throat, serves duel purposes.
Not only does it move the air
into your lungs, but it also
moves food into your
stomach. About five inches
long, the pharynx is
separated into three distinct
regions, chosen by location
and function: the
nasopharynx, the
oropharynx, and the
laryngopharynx.
The Larynx:

Also known as the voice box, the
pharynx is what allows you to
speak. The larynx has an inlet at
the top that allows substances to
pass through it or not. When food
is being swallowed, the inlet is
closed, forcing food into the
stomach. When air is being
breathed, the inlet is wide open so
that air can enter your lungs. With
the exception of the epiglottis, all
larynx cartilage is hyaline
cartilage. The Adam's apple is
really the laryngeal prominence,
where the curved disc shaped
thyroid cartilage bond.
The Trachea:

The trachea, or windpipe connects the
larynx to the bronchi. This organ differs
from others in the neck in that it is flexible,
stretching to be between four and five
inches long, and about one inch in
diameter. The trachea is lined with mucous
called the mucociliary escalator, which
represents the mucous and cilia and carry
the foreign substances up to be
swallowed. The trachea is made up of
between 16 and 20 cartilage rings in the
shape of a "C". Because the trachea is so
flexible and twistable, without these
cartilage rings, it would collapse under the
partial vacuum formed when inhaling. The
open part of the "C" shape is covered with
the Trachealis muscle, which can stretch
itself to prevent tracheal tearing when
swallowing large things. When you cough,
the muscle also contracts to force air out
at a faster speed to dislodge food or other
foreign objects stuck.
The Bronchi:

The trachea branches off into two main
bronchi, your left and right primary
bronchi, which lead to the left and right
lung respectively. Your right lung is
slightly wider, shorter, and taller that the
left, which makes it more vulnerable to
foreign invasion. At this point in
breathing, the air has been moistened,
purified and warmed.
Each bronchi enters its lung and begins
on a series of branches, called the
bronchial or respiratory tree. The first of
these branches is the lobar (secondary)
branch. On the left, there are two lobar
branches, while on the right, there are
three. Each lobar branches into one lobe.
The next branch is called the segmental
(tertiary) branch. Each branch continues
to branch into smaller and smaller
bronchioles. The final branch is called the
terminal bronchioles. These bronchioles
are smaller than 0.5 mm in diameter.
Respiratory Zone:

Respiration begins when the
terminal bronchioles lead into the
respiratory bronchioles. These
bronchioles are covered with thinskinned air sacs that allow for gasses
to pass through them. These sacs,
which contain alveoli, are called
alveolar sacs, and are at the end of
alveolar ducts. The alveoli are very
small curves in the sac walls. Your
lung has many millions of alveoli,
which gives your lungs an incredible
surface area for gas exchange.
Though fairly impossible to measure
exactly, that surface area is
approximated to 70 - 80 square
meters, or a square between eight
and nine meters on each side!
The Pleurae:

The Pleurae is a thin, double-layered
tissue which lines the walls of the
lungs and heart. Due to the fact that
it produces pleural fluid, the pleurae
helps the lungs to glide easily
against the rib-lining tissues, the
thoracic wall, when the lungs take in
air. Also, the pleural is essential to
breathing because it serves as
potential space. This important
function helps the lungs form a
vacuum which sucks in air from the
atmosphere. In addition, its
capability to stretch and divide the
lungs into two compartments, a
lower lung and a upper lung, allows
other organs to move without
interfering with respiration.
6. Digestive system
Function:
 The main role of the
digestive system is to
breakdown and absorb
nutrients that are
necessary for growth
and maintenance.
Mouth and Teeth:

During the process of chewing, food is shredded
and ground. Powerful muscles move the mandible,
or lower jaw, while the food is chewed. The front
teeth cut the food and the back teeth grind the
food.

There are three main parts to the tooth: the root,
the neck and the crown. The root is the part inside
the jaw. The neck is a narrow connection between
the root and the crown. The crown of the tooth is
above the gum.

First teeth come in between 6 and 8 months. By
age 6, baby teeth are gradually replaced by
permanent teeth. There are 32 permanent teeth.

When food is being chewed, saliva is squirted into
the mouth. Saliva helps to soften the food. It
contains an enzyme that helps break down the
starch in the food.

After chewing, the food is swallowed and passes
down the esophagus to the stomach. The
esophagus is about ten inches long. The tongue
helps push the food to the back of the mouth, and
the muscles in the esophagus move the food down
the tube.
Food Travel:

The muscles in the stomach move, which helps break down
the food. The stomach is protected from the acid by a
lining. From the stomach, the food pulp is sent to the small
intestine. Food leaves the stomach a little bit at a time.

The small intestine is the final place for digestion.
Measuring about twenty feet in length, the small intestine
is one inch in diameter. Digestive juices released in the
small intestine finish breaking down the food.

The food is moved along the small intestine in a squeezing
motion known as peristalsis. This motion is much the same
as squeezing a tube of toothpaste. All of this movement
causes the noise when we say our stomach is "growling."

Lining the small intestine are millions of fingers called villi.
These absorb the chemicals that we need from the food
into the body. It is at this point the food is actually in the
body.

Waste products and food that are not absorbed in the small
intestine pass into the large intestine. This waste material is
called feces. The large intestine is only five feet long but is
larger in diameter than the small intestine. The large
intestine includes the colon.

In the large intestine, feces are formed from water,
undigested food and bacteria. Water is absorbed back into
the body so the waste material becomes more solid as it
travels through the colon. It may take as long as twenty
hours for food to pass completely through the large
intestine.
Gall Bladder, Pancreas
and Liver
 The pancreas is an
elongated gland that is
below the stomach. It
produces pancreatic juice
that contains digestive
enzymes. The pancreas
also secrets insulin into the
blood. Insulin is needed to
allow glucose or sugar
from food to get into the
bloodstream. People who
cannot produce insulin are
diabetics.
Gall Bladder, Pancreas and
Liver: cont.

The largest gland in the body is
the liver. It is on the right side of
the body underneath the ribs. It
weighs about three pounds and is
eight inches long. The liver stores
a form of glucose called glycogen.
Vitamin A is manufactured in the
liver. Bile which is needed to
breakdown fat, is made in the
liver. This organ is also where
alcohol, drugs, bacteria and old
blood cells are broken down and
removed from the body. Damage
to the liver can be serious because
this organ is extremely necessary
to life.
Gall Bladder, Pancreas and
Liver: cont.
 The gallbladder is a small
sac on the underside of the
right lobe of the liver. It
stores bile that is made by
the liver. Bile travels from
the liver through the
hepatic ducts to the
gallbladder. It holds about
two ounces of bile. Bile is
needed to breakdown the
fat that is in food.
Small Intestine:
 The small intestine is
the longest organ of
the digestive tract. It is
divided up
indiscriminately into
three sections: the
duodenum, the
jejunum, and the ilium.
Duodenum:

This is the place where the ultimate
destruction of food digestion
reaches its completion and where
the acidity of chyme is nullified. The
nutrients in the food eaten many
hours ago have almost been
diminished to molecules small
enough to be absorbed through the
intestinal walls into the
bloodstream. Carbohydrates are
diminished into simpler sugars;
proteins to amino acids; and fats to
fatty acids and glycerol. Enzymes
are secreted by the walls of the
duodenum and unite with the bile
(essential for the digestion and
absorption of tenacious fatty
materials) and pancreatic enzymes
in the duodenum.
Jejunum:

Peristalsis pushes the nutrient
liquid out of the duodenum into
the first reaches of the jejunum. A
greater number of villi ,
microscopic, hair like structures,
begin to absorb amino acids ,
sugars, fatty acids and glycerol
from the digested contents of the
small intestine, and starts them on
their way to other parts of the
body. This part of the small
intestine executes a digestive
operation so that what is passed
on to the large intestine is a thin
watery substance almost
completely devoid of nutrients.
Ilium:
 This is the place which is about
a third of the small intestine.
The greatest number of the
estimated five or six million
villi in the small intestine are
found along the ilium making it
the main absorption locale of
the gastrointestinal tract. The
villi here are always in a fretful
movement: oscillating,
pulsating, lengthening,
shortening, growing narrower
then wider, extorting every
particle of nutrient.
7. Excretory system
Function:
 The main role of the
excretory system is to filter
out cellular wastes, toxins
and excess water or nutrients
from the circulatory system.
This system includes the
kidneys, bladder and tubes.
These organs control the
amount of water and salts
that are absorbed back into
the blood and what is taken
out as waste. This system also
acts as a filtering mechanism
for the blood.
Kidneys:

The kidneys are a filter for the blood. The
body has two kidneys located in the
middle of the back at about the location
of your elbows. Blood is pumped from
the heart to the kidneys to be cleaned.
Each kidney has about 1000 nephrons
that act as filters. As the blood goes into
a nephron, everything that is dissolved in
the blood (waste products, food) is
pushed out of the blood into small
tubules. As these things travel through
the tubule, the water and anything else
the body needs goes back into the blood.
The rest of the waste products keep
moving through the tubule into the
urethra. The urethra is the tube that
leads to the bladder. The cleaned blood
leaves the kidney and travels throughout
the body.
Bladder:
 The bladder is where urine is
stored to be released from the
body. It can hold between one
half to two cups of urine before
it needs to be emptied. About
96% of urine is water. It also
contains some waste salts and a
substance called urea. Urea is
made during the breakdown of
proteins in your liver. Urea may
also leave your body in sweat. If
urea builds up in your body, it is
a sign that your kidneys are not
working properly. Kidney failure
can be fatal if it is not treated
quickly.
Liver:
 The liver acts as a filter for the
blood that passes through it. The
liver removes amino acids that
don't need to be in your body.
The excess amino acids are
broken down so that they form
the urea which is excreted in the
urine. The liver can also change
hemoglobin from worn-out red
blood cells into substances that
are useful to the body. In
addition, the liver can change
any poisonous toxins that have
collected in the blood into
harmless substances.
Skin:
 Excretion by definition is
passive and deals with
metabolic wastes as filtered by
the kidneys. Though the sweat
may contain a trace amount of
metabolic wastes, sweating is
an active process of secretion
not excretion, specifically for
temperature control and
pheromone release. Therefore,
its role as a part of the
excretory system is minimal at
best. Specifically, the skin
secretes a fluid waste called
sweat.
Defecation:
 Organisms eliminate solid,
semisolid or liquid waste
material (feces) from the
digestive tract via the anus
during the process of
defecation. Waves of muscular
contraction known as
peristalsis in the walls of the
colon move fecal matter
through the digestive tract
towards the rectum.
Undigested food may also be
expelled this way; this process
is called egestion.
Ureter:

In human anatomy, the ureters are muscular
ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to
the urinary bladder. In the adult, the ureters
are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. In
humans, the ureters arise from the renal
pelvis on the medial aspect of each kidney
before descending towards the bladder on
the front of the psoa major muscle. The
ureters cross the pelvic brim near the
bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they
run over). This "pelviureteric junction" is a
common site for the impaction of kidney
stones (the other being the uteterovesical
valve). The ureters run posteroinferiorly on
the lateral walls of the pelvis. They then
curve anteriormedially to enter the bladder
through the back, at the vesicoureteric
junction, running within the wall of the
bladder for a few centimeters. The backflow
of urine is prevented by valves known as
ureterovesical valves. In the female, the
ureters pass through the mesometrium on
Urinary Bladder:

The urinary bladder is the organ that
collects urine excreted by the kidneys
prior to disposal by urination. A hollow
muscular, and distensible (or elastic)
organ, the bladder sits on the pelvic floor.
Urine enters the bladder via the ureters
and exits via the urethra. Embryologically,
the bladder is derived from the urogenital
sinus and, it is initially continuous with the
allantois. In males, the base of the bladder
lies between the rectum and the pubic
symphysis. It is superior to the prostate,
and separated from the rectum by the
rectovesical excavation. In females, the
bladder sits inferior to the uterus and
anterior to the vagina. It is separated from
the uterus by the vesicouterine
excavation. In infants and young children,
the urinary bladder is in the abdomen
even when empty.
Urethra:
 In anatomy, the urethra is a
tube which connects the
urinary bladder to the outside
of the body. The urethra has
an excretory function in both
sexes to pass urine to the
outside, and also a
reproductive function in the
male, as a passage for semen
during sexual activity.
 The external urethral
sphincter is a striated muscle
that allows voluntary control
over urine.
8. Endocrine System
Function:
 The main role of the
endocrine system is to
relay chemical messages
through the body. In
conjunction with the
nervous system, these
chemical messages help
control physiological
processes such as nutrient
absorption, growth, etc.
Major Glands That Make Up The
Endocrine System
 hypothalamus
 pituitary gland
 thyroid
 parathyroid's
 adrenal glands
 pineal body
 reproductive glands
(which include the
ovaries and testes)
Hypothalamus:
 It is a collection of
specialized cells that is
located in the lower central
part of the brain, is the main
link between the endocrine
and nervous systems. Nerve
cells in the hypothalamus
control the pituitary gland by
producing chemicals that
either stimulate or suppress
hormone secretions from the
pituitary
Pituitary:

Located at the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus, is
considered the most important part of the endocrine system. It's often
called the "master gland" because it makes hormones that control
several other endocrine glands.

The production and secretion of pituitary hormones can be influenced by
factors such as emotions and changes in the seasons. To accomplish this,
the hypothalamus provides information sensed by the brain (such as
environmental temperature, light exposure patterns, and feelings) to the
pituitary.

The tiny pituitary is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the
posterior lobe. The anterior lobe regulates the activity of the thyroid,
adrenals, and reproductive glands. The anterior lobe produces hormones
such as:

growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body
tissues and plays a role in the body's handling of nutrients and minerals

prolactin , which activates milk production in women who are
breastfeeding

Thyrotrophic, which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones

Corticotrophin, which stimulates the adrenal gland to produce certain
hormones

The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous
system and reduce feelings of pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes
hormones that signal the reproductive organs to make sex hormones.
The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in
women.

The posterior lobe of the pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone, which
helps control the balance of water in the body. The posterior lobe also
produces oxytocin, which triggers the contractions of the uterus in a
woman having a baby.
Thyroid:

The thyroid located in the front part
of the lower neck, is shaped like a
bow tie or butterfly and produces
the thyroid hormones and
triiodothyronine. These hormones
control the rate at which cells burn
fuels from food to produce energy.

The production and release of
thyroid hormones is controlled by
thyrotropin, which is secreted by
the pituitary gland. The more
thyroid hormone there is in a
person's bloodstream, the faster
chemical reactions occur in the
body.
Parathyroid’s:
 Attached to the thyroid are
four tiny glands that
function together called
the parathyroids. They
release parathyroid
hormone, which regulates
the level of calcium in the
blood with the help of
calcitonin, which is
produced in the thyroid.
Adrenal Glands:

The adrenal glands have two parts, each
of which produces a set of hormones and
has a different function:
1.
The outer part, the adrenal cortex,
produces hormones called
corticosteroids that influence or
regulate salt and water balance in the
body, the body's response to stress,
metabolism, the immune system, and
sexual development and function.
2. The inner part, the adrenal medulla,
produces catecholamines, such as
epinephrine. Also called adrenaline,
epinephrine increases blood pressure
and heart rate when the body
experiences stress.
Pineal:
 The pineal body, also
called the pineal gland, is
located in the middle of
the brain. It secretes
melatonin, a hormone
that may help regulate
when you sleep at night
and when you wake in the
morning.
Reproductive Glands:

The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. Most people
don't realize it, but both guys and girls have gonads.

In guys the male gonads, or testes, are located in the scrotum.
They secrete hormones called androgens , the most important of
which is testosterone. These hormones tell a guy's body when it's
time to make the changes associated with puberty like penis and
height growth, deepening voice, and growth in facial and pubic
hair. Working with hormones from the pituitary gland,
testosterone also tells a guy's body when it's time to produce
sperm in the testes.

A girl's gonads, the ovaries are located in her pelvis. They produce
eggs and secrete the female hormones estrogen and
progesterone. Estrogen is involved when a girl begins to go
through puberty. During puberty, a girl will experience breast
growth, will begin to accumulate body fat around the hips and
thighs, and will have a growth spurt. Estrogen and progesterone
are also involved in the regulation of a girl's menstrual cycle.
These hormones also play a role in pregnancy.

Although the endocrine glands are the body's main hormone
producers, some other organs not in the endocrine system — such
as the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, and skin — also produce
and release hormones.

The pancreas is also part of the body's hormone-secreting
system, even though it is also associated with the digestive
system because it produces and secretes digestive enzymes. The
pancreas produces (in addition to others) two important
hormones, insulin and glucagon. They work together to maintain
a steady level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood and to keep the
body supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of energy.
What Does the Endocrine
System Do?

Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland that produced it through
the bloodstream to the cells designed to receive its message. These cells are called target
cells. Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to some of the hormones.
These proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormone that is available for the
cells to use.

The target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and each hormone
has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with specific target cells
that have receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its target cell, it locks
onto the cell's specific receptors and these hormone-receptor combinations transmit
chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell.

When hormone levels reach a certain normal amount, the endocrine system helps the body
to keep that level of hormone in the blood. For example, if the thyroid gland has secreted
the right amount of thyroid hormones into the blood, the pituitary gland senses the normal
levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream. Then the pituitary gland adjusts its release of
thyrotropin, the hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.

Another example of this process is parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone increases
the level of calcium in the blood. When the blood calcium level rises, the parathyroid glands
sense the change and reduce their secretion of parathyroid hormone. This turnoff process is
called a negative feedback system
9. Reproductive system
Function:
 The main role of the
reproductive system is
to manufacture cells
that allow
reproduction. In the
male, sperm are
created to inseminate
egg cells produced in
the female.
Asexual Reproduction:

Fission, budding, fragmentation,
and the formation of rhizomes and
stolons are some of the mechanisms
that allow organisms to reproduce
asexually. The hydra produces buds;
starfish can regenerate an entire
body from a fragment of the original
body. Asexual reproduction allows
an organism to rapidly produce
many offspring without the time
and resources committed to
courtship, finding a mate, and
mating. The lack of genetic
variability in asexually reproducing
populations can be detrimental
when environmental conditions (for
which all the clones are so well
adapted) change quickly.
Sexual Reproduction:

In sexual reproduction new individuals are
produced by the fusion of haploid gametes to
form a diploid zygote. Sperm are male gametes,
ova (ovum singular) are female gametes. Meiosis
produces cells that are genetically distinct from
each other; fertilization is the fusion of two such
distinctive cells that produces a unique new
combination of alleles, thus increasing variation on
which natural selection can operate.

Rotifers will reproduce asexually when conditions
are favorable by having females produce eggs by
mitosis. When conditions deteriorate, rotifers will
reproduce sexually and encase their zygotes inside
a resistant shell. Once conditions improve, these
eggs hatch into diploid individuals. Rotifers thus
use sexual reproduction as way to survive a
deteriorating environment.

Sexual reproduction offers the benefit of
generating genetic variation among offspring,
which enhances the chances of the population's
survival. Costs of this process include the need for
two individuals to mate, courtship rituals, as well
as a number of basic mechanisms described later.
Human Reproduction and
Development:
 Human reproduction employs
internal fertilization, and
depends on the integrated
action of hormones, the
nervous system, and the
reproductive system. Gonads
are sex organs that produce
gametes. Male gonads are
the testes, which produce
sperm and male sex
hormones. Female gonads
are the ovaries, which
produce eggs (ova) and
female sex hormones.
The Male Reproductive System:
 Testes are suspended
outside the abdominal
cavity by the scrotum, a
pouch of skin that keeps
the testes close or far from
the body at an optimal
temperature for sperm
development. Somniferous
tubules are inside each
testis, and are where
sperm are produced by
meiosis.
Male Sex Hormones:
 The anterior pituitary produces
follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH). Action of LH is controlled
by the gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH). LH stimulates
cells in the seminiferous tubules
to secrete testosterone, which
has a role in sperm production
and developing male secondary
sex characteristics. FSH acts on
cells to help in sperm
maturation. Negative feedback
by testosterone controls the
actions of GnRH.
Sexual Structures:
 Sperm pass through the vas
deferens and connect to a short
ejaculatory duct that connects
to the urethra. The urethra
passes through the penis and
opens to the outside. Secretions
from the seminal vesicles add
fructose and prostaglandins to
sperm as they pass. The prostate
gland secretes a milky alkaline
fluid. The bulbourethral gland
secretes a mucus-like fluid that
provides lubrication for
intercourse. Sperm and
secretions make up semen.
The Female Reproductive
System:
 The female gonads, ovaries, are
located within the lower
abdominal cavity. The ovary
contains many follicles
composed of a developing egg
surrounded by an outer layer of
follicle cells. Each egg begins
oogenesisas a primary oocyte.
At birth each female carries a
lifetime supply of developing
oocytes, each of which is in
Prophase I. A developing egg
(secondary oocyte) is released
each month from puberty until
menopause, a total of 400-500
eggs.
Ovarian Cycles:

After puberty the ovary cycles between
a follicular phase (maturing follicles)
and a luteal phase (presence of the
corpus luteum). These cyclic phases are
interrupted only by pregnancy and
continue until menopause, when
reproductive capability ends. The
ovarian cycle lasts usually 28 days.
During the first phase, the oocyte
matures within a follicle. At midpoint of
the cycle, the oocyte is released from
the ovary in a process known as
ovulation. Following ovulation the
follicle forms a corpus luteum which
synthesizes and prepares hormones to
prepare the uterus for pregnancy. The
secondary oocyte passes into the
oviduct (fallopian tube or uterine tube).
The oviduct is connected to the uterus
Hormones and Female Cycles:
 The ovarian cycle is
hormonally regulated in two
phases. The follicle secretes
estrogen before ovulation;
the corpus luteum secretes
both estrogen and
progesterone after ovulation.
Hormones from the
hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary control the ovarian
cycle. The ovarian cycle
covers events in the ovary;
the menstrual cycle occurs in
the uterus.
10. Lymphatic/Immune System
Function:
 The main role of the
immune system is to
destroy and remove
invading microbes and
viruses from the
body. The lymphatic
system also removes
fat and excess fluids
from the blood.
The Inflammatory Response:

The Inflammatory Response is a defensive action
which takes into account fluids, hormones, and cells.
Some apparent symptoms relating to this response are
redness, heat, swelling, and pain. Once pathogens
have seeped into the blood stream, hostile chemicals
like prostaglandins, kinins, histamines, lymphokins
cause vasodilation, a dilation of the blood vessels,
which allows blood to rush into the damaged area. This
amounts to a feel of congestion inside your vessels and
causes a burning sensation and redness. These
chemicals provoke clotting factors and antibodies to
amass in the area, irritating nearby nerves, thus,
causing the pain. Adding to the pain would be the
damaging secretion of the bacterial toxins.
Nevertheless, the hormones, in a process called
chemotaxis, act like homing signals to the defensive
cells of the system, which latently arrive in the scene to
breach the pathogenic invasion. To further help the
clogging agents, nuetrophils cling to the skin surface
one after another, forming chains which sow the
damaged area. One common effect of the
inflammatory response is that of puss. By releasing
lysosomal enzymes, nuetrophils kill large portions of
the invading armies but destroy themselves in the
process. This mass killing of both pathogens and cells
amounts to a creamy like fluid called puss.
Interferon:

Interferon is a family of small proteins
which are manufactured by an infected
cell and helps inhibit viruses from entering
other healthy cells. Once a cell has been
infected by some virus, it releases
interferon, which binds to the membranes
of other immune cells, such as phagocites.
As the interferon binds to these cells,
viruses are incapable of dividing within
these cells.

The three kinds of interferon have
somewhat similar effects on immune
cells. In addition to their anti-viral effects,
interferon activate macrophages, natural
killers, and decrease cell division. Alpha [a]
interferon is produced by leukocytes. Beta
[ß] which is produced by fibroblasts. And,
Gamma [l] is fabricated by lymphocytes.
Natural Killers:

Natural Killers are a unique set of cells
which kill virus infested and cancer
cells by a process called lysis. This
involves the use of proteins called
compliment. This arrow like strand of
proteins allows the natural killer to
drain all the cellular fluid in the cell.
The process is similar to cutting
yourself and letting all your blood
drain out. Since bacteria can replace
it's membrane just like we can replace
our skin, the natural killers'
compliment has a protein called C9
which keeps the membrane hole open.
This ensures the full drainage of the
cellular fluid. Mainly, lysis and the
nonspecific ability to destroy all
diseased cells spontaneously gives
Natural Killers' their name.
Phagocytosis:

Phagocytosis is the cellular action of
"eating". This mechanism is mostly used
by immune cells called macrophages and
nuetrophils to destroy pathogens and
disease infested cells. The cell grabs any
bacteria or diseased cell with its flowing
extensions like if it were a blob engulfing
its victim. After the bacteria is ingested
in a food vacuole, a ball of highly acidic
enzymes called a lysozyme, inside the
cell begins, to digest it. To further
impose harm on the surrounding
pathogens, the neutrophil secretes a
deadly chemical somewhat similar to
household bleach. Unfortunately, upon
secreting the chemical, the nuetrophil
can not live in such an environment and
dies along with the other pathogens.
Saliva:
 Saliva in your mouth
contains an enzyme called
lysozyme which kills
bacteria. Any pathogen
upon entering the mouth
will meet not only the
sugar digesting enzyme
called alamalze , which will
produce some harm, but,
also lysozyme.
Nostrils:
 Your nostrils lead to your
lungs where the warm
environment would allow
pathogens to grow. However,
the mucous covered hairs of
the nose trap these invaders.
If pathogens get past the
nose, then the ciliated
trachea, the wind pipe, trap
these organisms and sweep
them to the top of the
trachea, where it is met by
your mouth..
Skin:
 Your skin will keep most
pathogens from entering, at
least while it is healthy,
because it has a very thick
layer of fat and dead skin cells
which block any intruder from
entering the body. Also, it
secrets acidic chemicals that
kill many pathogens. In fact,
the vaginal secretions of
adult female have so high
acidic levels that they kill
pathogens near the skin on
contact.
Fever:
 Fever is an abnormally high
increase of body temperature in
response to pathogen invasion.
Body temperature is regulated
by a section of the brain called
the hypothalamus . Normal
temperature is set by the
hypothalamus at 37°C (98.6°F).
If pathogens should enter the
body, then macrophages, which
would be fighting the invaders,
secret chemicals called
pyrogens.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:

http://library.thinkquest.org/2935/Natures_Best/Nat_Best_Low_Level/skeletal_page.L.html

http://www.google.com

http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookREPROD.
html
 http://library.thinkquest.org/5777/ner1.htm
 http://www.wikipedia.com
 http://www.wikispaces.com
