Transcript development - UPM EduTrain Interactive Learning

FEM 3101
Psikologi Perkembangan
Kanak-kanak & Remaja
Prof Madya Dr. Mariani Mansor
(Sem Kedua 2015-2016)
DEFINITION OF CONCEPT
 What is Growth (Pertumbuhan)?
 What is Development (Perkembangan)?
GROWTH
 Growth is a quantitative process of change
 Eg. changes in weight/height – i.e. changes in
saiz and structure, physical and mental aspects.
 Changes can be measured & assess - from one
stage to the other.
 Growth will reach its peak once a person mature.
DEVELOPMENT
 Development refers to qualitative changes
experienced by an individual.
 Life span (continuous) process  from Conception
till Death
 Changes can be observed  compare a child
ability/progress from the previous stage, e.g.:
 New born  ability?????
 5 months old infant  ability?????
 12 months old  ability?????
Thus….Child Development is….
 Change in the child that occurs over time  Changes
follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater
complexity and enhances survival.
 a scientific study of understanding all aspects of
human constancy and change from conception
through adolescence
 a part of a larger discipline known as developmental
psychology or human development, which includes all
changes experienced throughout the lifespan
The study of childhood: Basic Concepts
 Developmental Processes: Changes and Stability
 Quantitative change (growth) – Involve changes in size or
amount, such as height, weight.
 Qualitative change – a change in types, structure, or organization,
such as the ability for verbal communication, motor skill ability.
 Changes cannot be ‘measured’ but can be observed and
compared with earlier development. E.g ability of a newborn
& 5 months old baby
 Stability – constancy or enduring characteristics
 Changes in development is continues  from one stage to the
other  but maintaining a pattern
 Specific characteristics  Cephalacaudal, proximodistal, mass to
specific
TAHAP-TAHAP PERKEMBANGAN
 Pralahir (Prenatal period)
 Bayi (0-2 tahun) & Kanak-kanak Bertatih (2-3 tahun)
[Infancy and toddlerhood]
 Kanak-kanak Awal (3-6 tahun) [Early childhood]
 Kanak-kanak Pertengahan (6-10 tahun) [Middle childhood]
 Remaja (11-19 tahun) [Adolescence]
 Awal (11-14 tahun)
 Pertengahan (15-17 tahun)
 Lewat (18-19 tahun)
 Dewasa (20 tahun ke atas) [Adulthood]
 Awal (20-30an)
 pertengahan (40-50an)
 Akhir (60 tahun ke atas)
Domains Of Development
 Physical development (Biological/physiological)
 Body Size & Proportions, Appearance, Brain, Function Of
Body Systems, Health, Perceptual & Motor Skills
 Cognitive development
 Intellectual Abilities, Learning, Memory, Language, Thinking,
Moral Reasoning
 Psychosocial development (Socio-emotional Development)
 Personality, Emotions, Communication, Self-understanding,
Knowledge About Others, Interpersonal Skills & Social
Relationships, Moral Reasoning & Behavior
 All the domains are interrelated throughout development
Influences on Development:
 Factors that can influence development
are: Nature (sejadi)
 Warisan/baka/genetik
 Nurture (asuhan)
 Environment
 Nutrition
 Health
Historical foundation: How the study of childhood has
evolved?
 Early Approaches
 Medieval times
 The Reformation
 The Enlightenment
 John Locke
 John Jacques Rousseau
 Darwin
Scientific Beginnings
 Baby biographies
 Charles Darwin
 G. Stanley Hall
 Normative Period of Child Study
 Mental Testing Movement
Studying the lifespan
 Stanford Studies of Gifted Children – L. M. Terman
 Fels Research Institute Study
 Berkeley Growth & Guidance Studies
 Human development
 Conception to death
 Wide range of disciplines
An emerging consensus
 All domains are interrelated.
 Normal development includes a wide range of individual
differences.
 Children help to shape their own development and influence
others’ responses to them.
 Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence
development.
 Early experience is important, but children can be remarkably
resilient.
 Development in childhood is connected to development
throughout the rest of the lifespan.
THEORIES
What is a theory?
A theory is a set of logically related concepts or
statements, which seeks to describe and explain
development and predict what kinds of behavior
may occur under certain conditions.
 Hypotheses are tentative explanations or
predictions that can be tested by research.

Theory
An orderly, integrated set of statements
that
 Describes
 Explains
behavior
 Predicts
Benefits of theories in Developmental
Psychology
 Explain the meaning of an event/facts
 Able to relate these facts
Theories
 Psychoanalytic
 Psychosexual (S. Freud)
 Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
 Learning
 Behavioral Learning
 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
 Social Learning (A. Bandura)
 Social Cognitive Learning (A. Bandura)
 Cognitive
 Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget)
 Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky)
 Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg)
 Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner)
Psychoanalytic
Psychoanalytic
 Psychoanalytic theory proposes that morality
develops through humans' conflict between
their instinctual drives and the demands of
society.
 Freud identified three parts of the personality
that become integrated during five stages of
development
 ID (unconscious element) - the largest portion  is the
source of basic biological needs and desires.
 EGO (pre-conscious element) - partly conscious and
partly unconscious  rational part of the personality,
emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so
they are discharged in acceptable ways
 SUPEREGO (partly conscious & mostly unconscious -
function on the basis of morality) - the conscience that
develops between ages 3 - 6 through interactions with
parents, who insist that the child conform to the values of
society.
Psychoanalytic
 Psychosexual (S. Freud)
*Psychosexual stages
•Oral stage
•Anal stage
•Phallic
•Latency
•Genital
 Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
* 8 stages of dev.
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Trust versus mistrust (0-1)
Autonomy vs shame (1-2)
Initiative vs guilt (3-5)
Industry vs Inferiority (6-11)
Identity vs Identity Confusion (12-19)
Intimacy versus isolation (20’s-30’s)
Generativity vs stagnation (40’s-50’s)
Integrity vs despair (60 above)
Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s)
Adolescent (12-19)
Integrity vs Despair
Generativity vs Stagnation
Intimacy vs Isolation
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Early Childhood (3-5)
Initiative vs Guilt
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism & Social Learning
 Development results from learning
 Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory
 Continuous change
 Quantitative change
 Importance of the environment
 Associative learning
Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
(Pavlov)
Stimulus – Response
Operant Conditioning
(Skinner)
Reinforcers (Reward) and
Punishments
Social Learning
(Bandura)
Modeling
Social Cognitive Learning
(Bandura)
Modeling, Self Efficacy
(Personal+Behavior+ Environment)
Behavioral Theory
 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
(B.F. Skinner)
 Ivan Pavlov
•

Stimulus & Response
Learning based on
association of a stimulus that
does not ordinarily elicit a
response with another
stimulus that does elicit the
response.
• Learning based on reinforcement
or punishment
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment
• Behavior modification
Behavioral Theory
Albert Bandura
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
 Derived from Social
 Observe  Copy
 Modelling (Role model)
 Behaviors are learned by
observing and imitating
models
 Observational learning
 Models
 Importance of values and
thoughts in imitating
behavior of a model
learning theory.
 Emphasis on individual self
efficacy
 Learning - interaction
between person,
environment and behavior.
COGNITIVE
Cognitive Theory
 Socio-Cultural Theory
 Jean Piaget
 L. Vygotsky
 Cognitive Development
• Sensory motor
(0-2)
• Preoperational
(2-6)
• Concrete Operational (6-11)
• Formal Operation (11-adulthood)
•
Community & culture influence on
development  Focus is the social,
cultural, and historical complex of which
the child is part.
•
Social interaction necessary to learn
culture
•
Social Interaction
• Zone of proximal development –
The difference between what a child
can do alone and with help
• Scaffolding – Temporary support to
help a child master a task.
Cognitive Theory
 Moral Development
 Kohlberg
 Paras 1: Moraliti Pra- konvensional (4-9 tahun)
 Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taat
 Hedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik
 Paras 2:Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun)
 Moraliti “budak baik”
 Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti
 Paras 3:Peringkat Pasca Konvensional
 Moraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-undang secara
demokrasi
 Orientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal dan beretika
SYSTEM
THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS APPROACH
 Human Ecological System
 U. Bronfenbrenner
 View of development that sees the
individual as inseparable from the
social context:
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Micro system
Meso system
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
 Bio-ecological theory/The Process–Person–Context–Time Model (PPCT)
 Gene-environment interactions in human development i.e. understanding
the processes and contexts of development
 Placed greater emphasis on processes and the role of the biological
person.
RESEARCH METHODS IN
STUDYING CHILDREN
How theory and research work together
 Which theory is generally accepted today?
 What is the relationship between theory
and research?
Research methods


Qualitative and quantitative research
Scientific method – system of established principles and
processes of scientific inquiry
 Identifying a problem
 Problem statement - justify
 Objective
 Formulating hypotheses
 Methodology

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Data Collection (research design/sampling/method/tools)
Data analysis
Conclusion
Disseminating findings
Sampling
 Groups of participants chosen to represent the entire
population
 The sample should adequately represent the population
under study
 Generalization
 Random selection
Methods
 Naturalistic and laboratory observations
 Survey
 Parental self-reports
 Clinical interview
 Open-ended interview
 Structured interview
 Questionnaire
 Psychophysiological Methods
Systematic Observation

Observe respondent
 Naturalistic Observation
 In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens
 Structured observation
 Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest
 All participants have equal chance to display behavior
 Participant observation
 Incognito
 Record data
 Audio
 Video
 Manual
Interviews
Clinical Interview
 Flexible, conversational
style
 Probes for participant’s
point of view
Structured Interview
 Each participant is asked
same questions in same way
 May use questionnaires, get
answers from groups
Psychophysiological Methods
 Measures of autonomic nervous system activity
 Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils,
stress hormones
 Measures of Brain Function
 EEG
 Functional brain
imaging (fMRI)
Basic research designs
Case studies
 Collect various information about a subject to be studied
(people/event)
 Make a conclusion about subject understudied.
 Ethnographic studies
 Participant observation
 Correlational studies –
 To examine the relationship between 2 variables (independent
and dependent variables)
 Research intended to discover whether a statistical relationship
between two variables exists
 Problems of control and interpretation of causality
 Survey - A study on respondent’s views  on certain issues
 Use Questionnaires/Structured interview schedule

Experimental studies
 To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena
understudied
 Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the
researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of
one on the other.
 Independent variable - the condition over which the
experimenter has direct control
 Dependent variable - the condition that may or may not
change as a result of changes in the independent variable
 Experimental group and control group
Independent and Dependent
Variables
Independent
 Experimenter changes, or
manipulates
 Expected to cause changes
in another variable.
Dependent
 Experimenter measures, but
does not manipulate
 Expected to be influenced by
the independent variable
Modified Experiments
Field Experiments
 Use rare opportunities for
natural assignment in natural
settings
Natural Experiment
 Compare differences in treatment
that already exist
 Groups chosen to match
characteristics as much as possible
Designs for Studying Development
Longitudinal
Same participants studied repeatedly at
different ages
Cross-sectional
People of differing ages all studied at the
same time
LongitudinalCross-sectional
Same groups of different-aged people
studied repeatedly as they change ages.
Microgenetic
Same participant studied repeatedly over
a short period as they master a task