Transcript for the media

‫‪Media Theories‬‬
‫نظريات االعالم‬
‫‪Effects Theories‬‬
‫نظريات تأثير وسائل االعالم‬
Elements of Mass Communication

Five elements of mass communication
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sender: ‫ مرسل‬: It may be media professional or media
institution or organization which sends the information.
Receiver: ‫ مستق ِبل‬person who receives the information
sent. This mass of receivers are often called mass
audience ‫الجمهور المتلقي‬.
Message: ‫الرسالة‬content of information sent by sender. The
message is put in various forms like an interview,
documentary, film, an article, feature or news story.
Channel ‫االتصال قناة‬: Modern mass media like radio,
television or newspapers spread the message with great
speed.
Feedback: ‫ التغذية الراجعة‬response from receiver. Mass
communication will have indirect feedback.
The Communication Model
Source
Message
Channel
Feedback
Receiver
Persuasion vs. Manipulation ‫االقناع‬
‫مقابل التالعب‬

What is the difference between persuasion and
manipulation?
Persuasion ‫ االستمالة‬- ‫االقناع‬



Persuasion is an attempt to influence a person’s
actions through an appeal to his/her self-interest
‫اإلقناع هو محاولة للتأثير على أعمال الشخص من خالل التركيز‬
‫على أن له مصلحة ذاتية‬
A PR person must be aware of what the audience
wants to know.
Gained knowledge is “mutually beneficial” ‫المعرفة‬
‫المكتسبة فيها منفعة متبادلة‬
Manipulation ‫التالعب‬
Coercion ‫القهر‬


The audience might not need to know the
message, but they are coerced or tricked into that
knowledge when there is little of no benefit to
them. ‫الجمهور قد ال يحتاج ان يعرف الرسالة ولكن يتم اكراهه‬
.‫أو خداعه بخصوص هذه المعرفة حتى وان كانت بال فائدة لهم‬
There is manipulation of audience’s feelings,
emotions, thinking into believing certain things or
favouring or disfavouring other things. ‫هناك تالعب‬
‫بعواطف الجمهور وتفكيره بدفعه تجاه تفضيل أشياء وعدم تقبل‬
‫أشياء أخرى‬
Persuasion versus Manipulation



Manipulation suggests something dishonest.
Short-term gains are short-lived.
Manipulation comes with a cost: credibility.
What is propaganda?


“The deliberate and systematic attempt to shape
perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct
behavior to achieve a response that furthers the
desired intent of the propagandist.”
(Jowett & O’Donnell, 1986).
It’s the enemy that uses/makes propaganda (we
say)

while we provide “information,” “evidence,”
“education,” “reasoned arguments” (we say)
8
Propaganda and the mass media

Mass media—then and now—are
regarded as essential to successful
propaganda
 They’re the only channels guaranteed to
reach the whole public
 Mass media have advantage (in free
societies) of being regarded as
trustworthy
9
Why Public Relations
Is Not Propaganda



Many falsely use the two terms as if they are
synonyms.
Propaganda is associated with manipulation.
Public relations uses persuasion to satisfy the
needs of all parties.
The goal of all media theories
‫هدف نظريات اإلعالم‬



Explain relationships between media and
people
 Individuals
 Societies
 Cultures
Often, to explain media’s influence or
“effects”
What’s in it for us? Placing PR in context.
Timeline (highlights)




1880s-1910s (or so): mass society and mass culture
theories
1920s-30s: public opinion research; propaganda
theories (including “magic bullet”)
1940s-60s: “limited effects” paradigm
1960s: reactions against “limited effects” (in
various directions: some moderate, some powerful)
12
Effects Theories ‫نظريات تأثير وسائل االعالم‬
Do the media have an effect on viewers
and listeners?
 There are several theories that support the
extremes and the middle on this




Yes, it impacts us
No, it does not
Yes and No... somewhere in between
Effects Theories
Mass media/mass communications make
people powerless to resist messages the
media carries. ‫ وسائل االتصال الجماهيري‬/ ‫وسائل اإلعالم‬
‫تجعل الناس عاجزين عن مقاومة الرسائل التي تحملها وسائل‬
.‫اإلعالم‬
 Consumers seem to be ‘drugged’ or ‘addicted’
to the media messages. ‫يبدو المستهلكون وكأنهم‬
.‫مخدرون أو مدمنون على الرسائل التي تحملها وسائل االعالم‬
 Effects theories establish links between
violence and the media, especially with the
effects on the young.

Effects Theories
Historical Background
 Frankfurt School: Marxist German intellectuals
reacting against Nazi propaganda and US
advertising. ‫ مثقفون ألمان ماركسيون‬:‫المدرسة الفرانكفورتية‬
.‫انتقدوا دور الدعاية النازية واإلعالنات في الواليات المتحدة‬


It suggested the power of big corporations and the
state to control how we think. ‫أشارت إلى قوة تأثير‬
.‫الشركات الكبرى والدولة في تشكيل تفكيرنا‬
Rise of TV in the 50’s and 60’s – fear of danger
to children ‫ظهور التلفاز في الخمسينات والستينات أثار‬
.‫مخاوف من تاثيره السلبي على األطفال‬
Effects Theories
Historical Background
 Influence of behavioural scientists (think of
Pavlov’s dogs) – media may reinforce
attitudes through repetition ‫تأثرت بالعلماء‬
‫السلوكيين (المثير واالستجابة الشرطية) بمعنى أن وسائل‬
.‫االعالم تعزز االتجاهات من خالل التكرار‬
 Bobo doll experiment (1963) that pointed out
that children imitate adult treatment of doll.
‫تجربة دمية البوبو أشارت الى ان االطفال يقلدون تعامل الكبار‬
.‫مع الدمى‬
Moderate-Effects Theory ‫نظرية التأثير‬
‫المعتدل‬
Recognizes that media is not all-powerful in
its influence
 However, under certain circumstances it can
have a very strong effect
‫ ولكن في‬،‫تعترف أن وسائل االعالم ليست قوية في كل نفوذها‬
‫ظروف معينة فان لها تأثير قوي جدا‬

Limited-Effects Theory ‫نظرية التأثير المحدود‬


Media often does not have a direct effect on
audience and decision making. ‫وسائل اإلعالم في‬
‫كثير من األحيان ال يكون لها تأثير مباشر على الجمهور واتخاذ‬
‫القرارات‬
However, it is just one of many influences,
including:



Opinion leaders
One’s prior held beliefs
Influence of family, friends, peers
Powerful-Effects Theory ‫نظرية‬
‫التأثير القوي‬


Media has the potential for a huge influence
on the audience
Influence increases if:


Audience has little or no opinion on an issue
Audience has no direct experience with the issue
The Magic Bullet Theory
WWI (1930’s) Mass Media has the power
with the right message; therefore, can
influence people to do most anything.
Mass Media
Public
Hypodermic Needle Theory or Magic Bullet
Theory ‫نظرية االبرة تحت الجلد أو الطلقة السحرية‬
One of the earliest theories held that mass media was highly influential. It
was started by the Frankfurt School, a group of German Marxists in the
1930’s. They observed how Hitler user Propaganda to influence the nation.
The Communists in the Soviet Union had a similar impact.

The media is like a syringe injects ideas and attitudes into people’s minds, as
a doctor shoots a hypodermic needle into a patient.

‫ كما يحقن طبيب إبرة تحت الجلد في المريض‬،‫وسائل اإلعالم هي تحقن األفكار والمواقف في أذهان الناس‬
Audiences passively receive the information transmitted via a media text,
without any attempt on their part to process or challenge the information.

،‫الجمهور يتلقى بشكل سلبي المعلومات التي تنتقل من خالل وسائل اإلعالم‬
.‫من دون أي محاولة من جانبهم لمعالجة أو تحدي هذه المعلومات‬

Violence in the Media encourages viewers to imitate what they see. ‫يتأثر‬
‫الناس بمشاهد العنف ويميلون لتقليدها‬

This theory is no longer widely held.
The Magic Bullet Theory
Mass Media
You
“Magic bullet” theory of propaganda

Simplistic propaganda theory: media stimuli
work like “magic bullets” (or hypodermic
needles)


people are simply “targets,” unwitting victims
people are powerless to resist influence


no matter who they are
Media messages penetrate people’s minds
and instantly and directly create
associations between strong emotions and
specific concepts.
23
magic-bullet theory


External stimuli, like those in mass media, can
condition anyone to behave in whatever way a
master propagandist wants
 Built on stimulus-response (behaviorist)
model
No matter what your level of education or social
status
 magic bullets (media messages) penetrate
your defenses and transform your
thoughts/actions
24
Example

Origin: A British recruitment poster which
would have come out before conscription was
introduced in January 1916.

Motive: To encourage men in Britain to enlist in
the New Armies.

Audience: Men who are eligible to enlist and who
are in the right age group.



Content: The symbol - John Bull represents the British
people, note the Union Jack waistcoat. Personal appeal
- Use of Question -'Who's Absent? Is it You?‘
The finger pointing at the reader -'You'.
Soldiers waiting in the background for 'your' response.
Two-Step Flow Theory ‫نظرية‬
‫التدفق على مرحلتين‬



Media messages analyzed, interpreted and passed on
by opinion leaders first. ‫الرسالة االعالمية يتم تحليلها‬
‫وتفسيرها وتمريرها من قبل قادة الرأي أوال‬
Ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders and
from them to the less active sections of the population
‫تتدفق األفكار من وسائل االعالم الى قادة الرأي ومن ثم الى الفئات‬
.‫االخرى في المجتمع‬
The mass public gets information via these opinion leaders:
 Opinions are formed
 Perceptions are created
 Knowledge is gained (or repressed)
Two-Step Theory
Mass Media
Opinion Leaders
Public
End of WWII
(late 1940’s):
This theory
recognizes that
opinion leaders
influence the
rest of society
Opinion Leaders ‫قادة الرأي‬



Opinion leaders serve as powerful channels in the flow of
information ‫قادة الرأي يكونون بمثابة قنوات قوية لتدفق المعلومات‬
Opinion leaders may have more direct access to the media
and/or a better media literacy than the masses. ‫يستطيع قادة الرأي‬
‫الوصول إلى وسائل االعالم بشكل مباشر ولديهم معرفة بكيفية التعامل مع وسائل االعالم‬
.‫اكثر من الجمهور‬
They may include:







Political leaders
Experts
Celebrities
Community or religious leaders
Writers
Media analysts
Journalists
Example


Audience knows that a
Hollywood famous actor uses
a special type of mobile
phone.
To some of the public, this
communicates that this mobile
is the one to “buy”
‫الجمهور يعرف أن نجم هوليوود شهير‬
‫يستخدم نوع معين من الهاتف‬
.‫المحمول‬
‫بالتالي عند البعض هذا يعني ان هذا‬
.‫الهاتف جدير بالشراء‬
Decision-making Process ‫عملية‬
‫اتخاذ القرار‬


Exists on a continuum ‫موجودة على شكل سلم متدرج‬
Depends on:



The information itself
Personal psyche or disposition
Some key factors:

Socio-economic status (class)

Religion

Gender

Intra-familial status
 Uses
and
Gratifications
‫نظرية االستخدامات‬
‫واالشباعات‬
“what audiences do
with the media”
Uses & Gratifications Theory
‫نظرية االستخدامات واالشباعات‬



It attempts to answer the question: What do people do with the media?
‫ ماذا يفعل الناس مع وسائل االعالم؟‬:‫تحاول أن تجيب عن السؤال‬
The media have a limited effect on their audiences because audiences
are able to exercise control over their media
Active use of media by audience members to seek gratification of a
variety of needs. ‫هناك استخدام نشط لوسائل اإلعالم من قبل أفراد الجمهور‬
‫للحصول على اإلشباع في مجموعة متنوعة من االحتياجات‬

The needs most commonly identified are:
 Information ‫( المعلومات‬i.e. monitoring what's going on in the world)
 integration and social interaction ‫( االندماج والتفاعل االجتماعي‬we use the
media to find out more about the circumstances of other people perhaps
through empathy or sympathy)
 personal identity ‫(الهوية الشخصية‬we may watch television for models for
our behaviour. For instance - we may identify with film characters or
their situations)
 Diversion ‫( تحويل االنظار‬i.e. entertainment and escapism‫) الترفيه والهروب‬.
Uses & Gratifications Theory

There are 4 basic assumptions: ‫هناك افتراضات أربعة‬
1.
2.
3.
People are active & choose what they want to watch
& why. ‫هناك دور فاعل للناس ويختارون ما يشاهدون ولماذا‬
The media compete with other sources for need
gratifications. ‫تتنافس وسائل االعالم مع مصادر أخرى إلشباع‬
.‫الحاجات‬
People are aware of their media use, interests and
motives. ‫الناس على وعي باستخدامهم لوسائل االعالم ومصالحهم‬
.‫ودوافعهم‬
3.1 People choose media that suit them
3.2 People choose media that fulfill needs, are useful, and
are pleasurable to them
4. Value judgments of the media can only be assessed by the
audience. ‫يقوم الجمهور فقط بتقييم وسائل االعالم‬
Uses and Gratifications
Theory
Mass Media
Public
Message is
blocked by the
receiver as they
now have the
power to pick
and choose
their
communication
source ‫يقوم‬
‫المتلقي بصد الرسالة‬
‫حيث لديه القوة ليختار‬
.‫مصدر االتصال‬
Uses and Gratifications
Theory
Mass Media
Message
received
‫تلقي الرسالة‬
Public
Uses and Gratifications
Theory
Mass Media
Interactive
Public
Uses and Gratifications
Theory
Mass Media
Self-selected
messages ‫رسائل‬
‫يختارها المتلقي‬
‫بذاته‬
Public
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs





Physiological/ Survival (lowest): The most basic needs
that must be fulfilled before all others… food, water,
rest and sex.
Safety: Personal security, comfort and peace, and
orderly surroundings
Love & Acceptance: A sense of belonging, love and
affection.
Self-esteem: Seeking recognition, prestige, leadership
opportunities and success.
Self-actualization: (highest) To seek a goal just for the
sense of accomplishment
The Agenda-Setting Theory
‫نظرية ترتيب األولويات‬
Mass Media
Based on the principle
that the mass media
does not tell the
people what to think,
but what to think
about.
The challenge: Who
tells the media what to
think about?
Public
Agenda Setting Theory ‫نظرية ترتيب االولويات‬
The theory was developed by Maxwell McCombs
and Donald Shaw in the late 1960s.
 McCombs and Shaw argued that the “Mass
media have the ability to transfer the salience
of items on their news agendas to the public
agenda.” As they put it : “We
judge
as
important what the media judge as
important.”
‫جادل مكومس وشو بأن "وسائل اإلعالم لديها القدرة على نقل البنود‬
‫البارزة المدرجة على جداول وسائل االعالم على جدول أعمال‬
‫الجمهور" كما قالوا "نحن نحكم على أهمية شيء بما تحكم عليه‬
".‫وسائل االعالم انه مهم‬

Agenda Setting
Political scientist Bernard Cohen observed
“The press may not be successful much of the
time in telling people what to think, but it is
stunningly successful in telling them what to think
about.” (1963)
‫عالم السياسة برنارد كوهين الحظ أن « الصحافة ربما ال تنجح في‬
‫ ولكنها تنجح بشكل‬،‫معظم الوقت في أن تخبر الناس كيف يفكرون‬
“‫كبير في أن تقول لهم عن ماذا يفكرون‬
 “Media agenda” determines the “public agenda”

What’s covered—and emphasized—in news becomes
what people say is important to them
One Study on Agenda Setting

McCombs and Shaw’s study defined media
agenda by studying coverage of issues in nine
print and broadcast sources.

They used position and length of story as main
criteria of prominence in print media and
placement in first three stories or a discussion
over 45 seconds for broadcast
Agenda setting

Issues prominent in the media were:





Foreign policy
Law and Order
Fiscal Policy
Public Welfare
Civil Rights
Agenda Setting


To determine public’s agenda they asked voters
to identify what they considered to be the top
issues in the 1968 campaign between Nixon and
Humphrey.
They compared aggregate data from voters with
media content and found that the issues and the
ranking of the issues was nearly identical on
both lists.
Agenda Setting Theory


The pattern of news coverage of a particular topic
helps to determine what the public perceives as
important
‫نمط التغطية اإلعالمية لموضوع معين يساعد على تحديد ما هو‬
‫المهم للجمهور‬
In other words, the media sets the agenda
‫ فإن وسائل اإلعالم تضع جدول األعمال‬، ‫وبعبارة أخرى‬
Agenda Setting
Who is most likely to be affected by
the agenda-setting function of the
media ? ً ‫أي فئة من الجمهور تكون أكثر تأثرا‬
‫بوظيفة ترتيب األولويات لوسائل االعالم؟‬
Agenda Setting
McCombs and Shaw have argued that the people
who have a willingness to let the media shape
their thinking. ‫من لديهم استعداد ألن تشكل وسائل االعالم‬
‫تفكيرهم‬
 A high need for orientation or index of curiosity
stemming from high relevance and uncertainty.
‫ولديهم حاجة كبيرة للتوجيه أو مؤشر فضول ناجم عن اهتمام كبير‬
.‫بالموضوع أو عدم يقين تجاهه‬

Criticism of original AS theory

How do you know the relationship is causal in
THIS direction?


Media agenda
voters’ agenda
Isn’t it possible that it works the other way?


Voters’ agenda
media agenda
(That is, the media give their audiences what they
want)
What other questions arise?

Who sets the agenda for the media? ‫من يرتب‬
‫األولويات بالنسبة لالعالم؟‬



i.e., how do the media determine what to cover? ‫كيف‬
‫تقرر وسائل االعالم أية موضوعات تتناول؟‬
What do you think?
What/who determines what’s deemed
“newsworthy”? ‫من يحدد الموضوع الجدير أن يتصدر‬
‫األخبار؟‬
The Agenda-Setting Theory
‫نظرية ترتيب األولويات‬
Mass Media
Based on the principle
that the mass media
does not tell the
people what to think,
but what to think
about.
The challenge: Who
tells the media what to
think about?
Public
‫!‪1990s: challenge to that idea‬‬
‫!!!‪New claim: media do also tell us what to think‬‬
‫طرح جديد‪ :‬وسائل االعالم أيضا ً تقول لنا كيف نفكر!!!‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪i.e., which attitudes/opinions to hold about people,‬‬
‫‪events, ideas in the news.‬‬
‫بمعنى أنها تقول لنا ما هي االتجاهات واآلراء واألفكار التي يجب أن نحملها‬
‫عن الناس واألحداث واألفكار في األخبار‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬
Updating the Agenda Setting
“The press may not be successful much of the time
in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly
successful in telling its readers what to think
about” (Cohen, 1963).
“The media may not only tell us what to think
about, they may also tell us how and what to
think about it, and perhaps even what to do
about it” (McCombs, 1997)