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Chapter 6
The World in the 18th Century
Intro
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Western Europe continued exploring the
world and expanding Western influence,
power and wealth
Most of the world’s cultures were drawn
into global trading relationships
West’s unceasing search for riches,
decimated indigenous cultures, created
enduring dependence on the West, and
enslaved millions
The West and the World
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Seems all present-day developing
nations lived through a similar historical
experience:
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they all had to endure the expansion of
Europe as it embraced capitalism
Two main theories attempt to explain
developing nations today:
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modernization theory
dependency theory
Modernization Theory
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Suggests that all societies were
originally traditional
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societies in which work is regulated
subsistence and existence
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experienced little change, little progress and
little innovation (stagnant)
Scientific discovery lead to important
technological change in Europe
Modernization Theory (2)
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The advent of capitalism also fuelled
change
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Uses the idea that wealth can be used to create
more wealth
Modernization theorists claim that
developing countries today failed to
move from traditional societies to
modern societies
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Did not focus on science, technology,
innovation, capitalism or democracy
Modernization Theory (3)
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Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth
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Stage 1: The traditional society
Stage 2: Something happens to stir up the
traditional society
Stage 3: Country’s political leaders make
progress, science and technology priorities
Stage 4: Economic growth begins and
spreads to various sectors of society
Stage 5: Masses (lower class) finally
benefit from the economic growth through
increased standards of living
Dependency Theory
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Opposite to modernization theory
Reason some countries are developing
nations today is because European
nations deliberately created poverty and
dependency in these areas
None of these countries has remained
traditional
Dependency Theory (2)
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Developing world is where it is today as
a result of its deliberate
underdevelopment by European powers
Dependency theorists point out that
these cultures were far from traditional if
they were receiving such praise for
improvements in agriculture and
manufactures
Major Arenas of European
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Conflict in the 18 Century
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By 1800 it was evident that Spain and
Portugal had failed to take full control of
the world they had pioneered
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America was mostly Catholic with Spanish
and Portuguese languages present
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did not have much influence in the realm of
economics
Dutch had also slowed down their
activities in Africa, Indonesia, and
Malaysia after 1700 leaving them open
to European exploitation
Arenas (2)
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Britain as a global empire experiences a
period of global authority that would not
end until well after WWI
1715-1815 saw the emergence of a
cluster of great powers that would
dominate 19th c Europe
Arenas (3)
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Russia became a major power in
Eastern Europe
German-speaking Prussia grew in
importance in Central Europe
Britain and France fought a global duel
for control of the seas-which Britain won
Although overextended, Austria
remained influential in Central European
politics
Arenas (4)
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Monarchies of Spain, Portugal and the
Italian states carried little weight
Dutch, Danes, Swedes were now also
secondary powers
Great powers were closely matched in
resources and strength
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Not able to ignore the lesser states
Made frequent overtures for collaboration
French Hegemony Thwarted
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Louis XIV wanted to extend his authority
in Europe
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An alliance among Britain, the Netherlands
and others formed against France
French and Spanish fleets were outclassed
by Anglo-Dutch at sea
Hegemony (2)
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Peace of Utrecht signed in 1713
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King of Spain, Philip V kept his throne and
the Spanish empire, but ceded Gibraltar
and Menorca to Britain
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He renounced any claim to the French throne
Hegemony (3)
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Treaty had implications beyond Europe
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Louis XIV of France returned Hudson Bay ,
Acadian, Newfoundland & Saint Kitts to
Britain
British received an annual contract, the
Asiento, to provide the Spanish Empire
with slaves, an agreement later extended
to the Austrian emperor
Austria
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Austria had gained from Turks most of
Hungary as well as northern Serbia By
early 18th c, 3 powers dominated:
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Great Britain had become the dominant
naval power,
Austria had become a formidable land
force
France had acquired considerable strength
both on land and at sea
Austria (2)
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British navy was being challenged by
the French, who were trying to rebuild
their war fleet
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By 1739 France had 50 major warships
and Britain had 80
Conflict between Britain and France
loomed overseas in their trading and
colonial interests
War of Austrian Succession
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Maria Theresa became the new
Austrian Empress in 1740
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Frederick the Great (Prussia) reacted by
invading Austrian province of Silesia
Austrians were never able to force
Frederick to give up his conquest
Ensuring war, which pitted the AngloAustrian troops against Franco-Bavarian
and Prussian troops, is known as the War
of Austrian Succession
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
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1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ended
war, but settled little
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British exchanged Madras, India to get the
Louisbourg fortress from the French
The Netherlands were ceded to Austria
Silesia ceded to Prussia
Ongoing hostility erupted into open war
in 1756 (7 Years War)
Seven Years’ War
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In early 1756, Britain and Prussia
signed an agreement not to attack each
other
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France and Austria signed a defensive
alliance
In June, France seized Menorca from
the British
In August, Prussian invading Saxony
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However, it united the Austrians and
Russians against him
Seven Year’s War (2)
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Prussian state survived undefeated
Europe’s major powers were pitted
against each
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War would have worldwide repercussions,
especially for North America
Seven Year’s War was caused by:
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Britain’s efforts to strengthen naval
supremacy
Russia’s expansion in Eastern Europe
Seven Year’s War (3)
 Conflicts
between France and England
were fought outside the Continent
 North
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America, Africa, Caribbean, India
In India, Robert Clive and his forces
prevailed over the French in 1757
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Resulted in buildup of British influence on
the Indian subcontinent
In Canada, British captured Louisbourg,
Quebec City, and Montreal
Seven Year’s War (4)
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In September 1759 two major battles
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Lagos (Portugal) and Quiberon Bay
(France)
Decimated the French fleet and
established the supremacy of British fleet
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Removal of the French from the Atlantic cut off
the supply line of French troops to new France
French also lost coastal trading posts in West
Africa
After loss, British seized Guadeloupe,
Martinique, and other West Indian islands
Treaty of Paris
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Peace agreement reached in 1763
France showed little interest in
reclaiming new France
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Choose to keep islands of St. Pierre and
Miquelon, secure return of Guadeloupe
In India, France retained only a few
coastal trading posts
 The treaty marked the beginning of an
extensive period of British dominance
outside Europe
Human Servitude
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By the beginning of the 18th century,
slaves had become the primary export
from Africa
Millions of Africans were enslaved for
the benefit of manufacturing and
commercial interests in Europe and
America
Africans Shipped to Slavery
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Between 1701 and 1810
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two million slaves were exported from
Africa by England alone
France and Portugal exported
approximately 600,000 slaves each
Africans (2)
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Estimated that as many as 14 million
Africans were shipped to slavery
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About 1% of slaves went to Europe
About 7% went to US and Canada
About 42% to Caribbean
About 50% went to Latin America
Slaves (3)
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By the time slavery was abolished
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Much of the world had been forever altered
Heavy depopulation, particularly of young
males, weakened African communities
Becoming a Slave
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Slavery existed in African society before
European contact and trade
3 ways a person could become a slave:
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Pawnship, Judicial decision, Capture
Slaves in Africa better off:
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could still be functioning members of
owner’s family
Received better treatment than being
bought and sold by European slave traders
Profit from Slave Trade
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Profits from slave trade could be
enormous - might make 300% profit
Costs for European slave traders
included fees and taxes, financial losses
due to losses of ships and crew at sea,
hiring people in Africa to load slaves
onto ships
Estimated average was 24%; later
reduced to 8-13%
Colony at Cape of Good Hope
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Cape of Good Hope did get colonized
by Europeans
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Dutch first landed there in 1652
Dutch settled into colonial life at he Cape
and began importing slaves by the middle
of the 17th century
By 1711, the were 1771 private owned
slaves; by 1793 there were 14747
Cape of Good Hope (2)
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Cape has been called one of the most
rigid and oppressive slave societies that
existed
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Slaves had very little family life due to low
ratio of women to men
Dutch relied heavily on coercion as a
means of control
Strong racial divisions between Indonesian
and African slaves – worst jobs went to
slaves from Mozambique
Abolition of Slavery
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Not all people were completely
indifferent to the cruelty, exploitation,
and death that came with the slave
trade
Slaves often flogged and other physical
punishments to keep slaves from
rebelling or running away
With the Enlightenment came calls for
an end to slavery and the slave trade
Barriers to Human Rights
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As slave trade grew, churches offered
support for the practice of slavery
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Some justified slavery under God and the
bible
Many believed that Blacks were stronger
and more resistant to the climatic and
working conditions of plantations
Others argued that if the slave trade were
to be legally terminated, it would continue
illegally because it was so profitable
Agents of Human Rights:
Abolitionists
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Abolitionist movement gained momentum
Major abolitionist was GuillaumeThomas-Francois Raynal (1713-1796)
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Negative overview of the European world
system
European settlers who lived in the colonies
were vicious
Believed discovery of the East and West
Indies had been a catastrophe of much of
humanity
Abolition (2)
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Slavery was abolished in Upper Canada
as of 1834 (not illegal but frowned upon)
Slavery was abolished in France on
September 27, 1791
Abolished in Mexico in 1829
Persisted in the southern United States
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Major cause of the American Civil War
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War raged from 1861 to 1866 before slavery
was abolished
Islam and the West
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Islam founded by the Prophet
Muhammad in the 7th century
Islam expanded greatly
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by 1500 much of North Africa and the
Middle East was Muslim territory
In 1453, the city of Constantinople
(Istanbul) fell to Sultan Mohammed II,
and marked the new western border of
the Empire of the Ottoman Turks
Islam (2)
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Constantinople had been a Christian
stronghold for the previous 1000 years
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Fall to Islam was a severe shock to the
Christian world
Key consequence was the loss of
access to the Black Sea, depriving
Europe of a land route to India
Islam (3)
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Ottoman Empire was dominant power of
from the 16th to 19th century
By the 16th century, the West was
aware of three major Muslim Empires
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The Ottoman Empire
The Safavid Empire – which had replaced
Zoroastrianism in Persia (Iran)
The Moghul Empire – which had taken
over Hindu India
Islam (4)
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Muslims tended to have superior
military
Ottomans also had more efficient
bureaucracy than the West
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In Islamic tradition, new appointments were
given on the grounds of ability, not birth
Fatal flaw of Ottoman Empire was its
excessive exploitation of its peasantry
Islam (5)
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Ottoman decline was also due to its
failure to develop artillery and ships that
carried naval gunnery
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Strength lay in ground armies
By 1800, Europeans were calling the
Ottoman Empire “the Sick Man of
Europe”
India and the West
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Indian subcontinent also affected by
contact with Europeans
India became unified under Moghul
(Mongol) rule
India (2)
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18th c Mogul dynasty in decline
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Infighting between sons of emperor after his
death
Challenges to Mogul rule by Sikhs
Increased power of the Marathas (local Hindu
powers)
Attacks by Persians
Inter-regional religious wars
Court incompetence
General greed of Moguls
India (3)
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Government structure around semiindependent Moghul provincial
governors called navabs
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Navabs controlled local landowners called
zamindars
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Seemed to be in constant conflict
Zamindars were supposed to pay revenue to
their navid, but often expanded their own
territory without paying the required tribute
India (4)
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Declining power of the Moghuls
benefitted British
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1690 est. British settlement in Calcutta
To 1750s, Britain exerted influence
through trade and alliances
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British in direct control of import and export
trade, price-setting, and the ability to force
exclusive contracts with local craftspeople
Also had access to considerable treasury
of Bengal
India (5)
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By 1765, the East India Company had
official control of civil administration and
therefore control over the tax system
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Increased taxes - often lead to bankruptcy
for Bengali farmers
Company’s control expanded to other parts
of India through warfare and intervention
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Sometimes direct rule over areas it conquered,
sometimes it installed and supported puppet
rulers
India (6)
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After 1765, British East India Company
changed to official arm of British gov’t
Indians ended up paying for the costs of
British initiated warfare
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Agriculture shifted to production to more
profitable goods for export
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Goods included cotton, opium, and salt
British established monopoly over sale of
salt
Art of the Non-Western World
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Influence of Moghuls very evident in art
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The Rajasthani style emphasized romantic
scenes between princely heroes and
beautiful and alluring heroines
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Often popular Hindu gods and goddesses
Shows a focus on concepts rather than realistic
depictions, and an appeal to emotions through
brilliant colours on large areas
The Pacific Northwest and the
West
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Europeans explored and mapped the
Pacific Northwest
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Russian searched shores of Pacific and
Arctic Oceans for furs
English (George Vancouver) explored
the west coast of Canada 1791 – 1795
Spanish sailed north from California
Pacific Northwest (2)
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Russian, British, and Spanish naval
activity led to a more accurate
knowledge of the contours of Pacific
North America
By 1800, the configurations of five
continents were known
China and the West
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China had huge effect on Europe 18thc.
Jesuit missionaries provided the first
favourable description of the China
Italian Jesuits were allowed into Beijing
at the start of the 17th c
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Gained acceptance since they helped with
calendar reform, improvements in artillery,
and advice on negotiations with Russia
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Would lead to the Sino-Russian treaty of 1689
China (2)
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Christianity was officially tolerated until
1734 - Chinese Emperor forbade
teaching of European religions
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Jesuits stayed in China until the dissolution
of their order in 1773
Europeans were impressed by the fact
that there was no hereditary nobility in
China
China (3)
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Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)
“Chinese Despotism” - maintained that
despotism is the domination of natural
law
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he believed had led the Chinese to be
more dependent on agriculture than any
other nation
Despotism: a system of government in
which the ruler has unlimited power
China (4)
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Tithe on crops was the principal tax
base
Chinese Emperor performed solemn
rites to mark the phases of the
agricultural year
Europeans marvelled at Chinese script
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Some Europeans learned some spoken
Chinese for use in trading but without any
knowledge of script or grammar
Global Economic Relations
with China
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British expansion in India was tied to
expansion in China
Argued that British needed the wealth and
goods of India to gain access to China
Chinese considered Europeans “red haired
barbarians” and refused to trade with them
Economics (2)
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Trade eventually opened to Europeans
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Main beneficiary -British East Indian Company
English bought silk, porcelain, and
medicine from the Chinese and tried to sell
them a number of things in return
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Woollens – no Chinese interest
Lead, tin and rattan, pepper and rice – not
interested
Economics (3)
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Chinese wanted silver
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Demand for silver soon created a huge drain on
British resources
Tea had been introduced in England in 1664
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By 1783 six million pounds of tea imported
By 1785, 15 million pounds
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Tea had to be paid for with silver
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Chinese would not accept anything else
British relied heavily on silver from the Americas
Economics (4)
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British started growing opium in India and
sold it to the Chinese
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Addiction to opium soon became a serious
social problem in China
By end of 19th century, one in ten Chinese
people were addicted to opium
Chinese Painting
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Interest in China went as far as influencing
interior decoration in Europe
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Chinoiserie – European style of objects and
décor that imitated China
Trade in “China”
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When Vasco da Gama reached the Orient
by rounding the Cape of Good Hope in
1498, he change the way of trade between
China and Europe
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No longer had to rely on overland traders
Brought a wide array of items to the European
marketplace : silk, spices, tea and porcelain
“China”
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Chinese began making porcelain for export
By 17th century large quantities of porcelain
were being imported to Europe
Porcelain as a decorative accessory reached
its peak in the late 17th and early 18th
centuries
“China”
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British and other Europeans slowly took
over production of porcelain
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Key players were Delft, Wedgewood and Royal
Doulton
Europeans and North Americans still call
any fine porcelain “china”
Mutiny on H.M.S. Bounty
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One of most famous stories of eighteenth
century Europeans in the South seas
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Concerns the voyage of a British trading vessel,
the HMS Bounty
Set sail from England in December 1787 with
orders to reach the island of Tahiti and there
collect young breadfruit plants
Plants were to be brought in pots to the West
Indies and grown there as a cheap food for
slaves working on plantations
Mutiny (2)
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Bounty reached Tahiti one year later, 1788
Return voyage delayed
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many of the crew had taken “wives” and set up
households with the Tahitians
Mutiny (3)
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Mutiny took place 24 days after the ship left
Tahiti for the West Indies
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Captain William Bligh (1754 – 1817) and 18
loyal crewmembers were set adrift in a small
boat
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miraculously survived long enough to reach the
Dutch East Indies, some 3500 miles from Tahiti
Remaining crew returned Tahiti and the others
setting out to find another island where they
and their Polynesian companions could settle
Englebert Kaempfer:
The History of Japan
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Published “The History of Japan” in 1727
based on his travels
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Describes the Japanese Emperor in detail,
particularly the taboos that applied to him
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Emperor was so holy that he had to be carried
everywhere on the shoulders of his servants so that
his feet would not touch the ground
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Could not cut his hair, beard or nails, since these parts of
his body were particularly holy
If he had to be “cleaned” it was to be done while he was
sleeping