Transcript Labour Party

Paper A : World history(1500-1870 A.D.)
1. The renaissance and reformation
Feudalism
Feudalism was the way of life in Europe during the middle
ages. It controlled the politics, the financial affairs, the
government an the society of times. The feudal form of
society vegan to appear in Western Europe around the
middle of 9th century and reached its height in the early 12th
and 13th centuries. It continued to wide a considerable
influence in the continent even up to the beginning of
nineteenth century. Feudalism had its roots in early German
and Roman institutions, the word feudal comes from a Latin
word feudum which means a landed estate or group of
estates held by a person in return for military services to the
recognized owner of the land. Feudalism was the system by
which the nobles of the Middle ages kept the ownership and
control of their lands.
Chief Features of Feudalism
1. King the owner of land
2. Barons o lords
3. Serfs
4. Oath of allegiance and investiture
5. Manor
6. Church
Causes of Decline of Feudalism
1.
Rise of strong monarchies
2.
Maintenance of standing army
3.
Use of gun powder
4.
Crusades
5.
Rise of cities and towns
6.
Rise of middle class
7.
Beginning of state Crrency
8.
Black death, 1348-49
9.
Decrease in the power of the Popes
10. Spread of Education
11. Destruction of feudal lords in mutual warfare & European wars
12. Revolts of Farmers
13. Rise of Nationalism
14. Rise of capitalistic Economy
15. Development of Democracy
Renaissance
Causes of Renaissance
1. Crusades
2. Capture of constantinople by the Turks
3. Rise of Mongolian Empire
4. Decline feudalism
5. Invention of printing press
6. Developments of cities and towns
7. Role of wealthy influential individuals
8. Role of the clergy
9. Emergence of a new concept- humanism
10. Development of science
11. Geographical discoveries
Conclusion
Renaissance on the social, cultural, political and economic
life of people
Social effects
1. Rise of the spirit of Humanism
2. The spirit of enquiry and rational thinking
3. Increase in the status of women
4. Development of new manners and etuquettes
5. Moral chaos
Cultural effects
1. Development of literature
2. Progress of modern education
3. Development of fine arts
4. Development of science
5. Emergence of archeology and development historiography
6. Geographical discoveries
Economic effects
1. New thoughts in economic field
2. Rise of capitalism
3. Development of new rich class
Political effects
1. Rise of absolute monarchy
2. Rise of middle class
3. Rise of nationalism
4. Corruption in politics
Religious effects
1. Weakened the authority of church
2. Rise of the Absolutist state
Causes of the rise of absolute monarchy and its main
features
I. Causes
i. Impact of the crusades
ii. Established of national state
iii. Renaissance
iv. Reformation
v. Use of gun powder by the king
vi. Need of powerful monarchy
vii. Growth of trade and towns
viii.Mercantilism
ix. Influence of contemporary scholars and thinkers Jean
Bodin(1530-1596), Niccolo Machiavelly (1469-1527),
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679).
x. Role off the powerful despots
Rise of Absolutism
• From weak king to absolute monarch
– End of Middle Ages, kings of England, Spain,
France, Russia, Prussia, Austria began to expand
rule
• Factors strengthening royal power
– Crusades & other wars killed many feudal lords
– Rising middle class supported monarchs
– Reformation gave monarch powers formerly
held by the Church
– Awakening spirit of nationalism made the
monarch a symbol of national unity
Tudors of England
• Henry VII, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I
• Expanded central government; dominated
Parliament
• Anglican Church (Protestantism)
• Furthered economic prosperity & transformed
England into a world power
• Aroused nationalism
• Defeated Spanish Armada in 1588
• Enjoyed immense popularity
France
• Hundred Years’ War
– Spurred national pride; spurred by Joan of Arc
– Strengthened & enriched the crown
• Religious Wars – opposing Catholic and Protestant
claims to the throne
– Bourbon kings emerge (Henry IV)
• Cardinal Richelieu – helps lead King Louis XIII
– Ignores the Estates General (Parliament)
– Leads France into Thirty Years’ War in support of
Protestantism; emerges a leading power
France cont.
• Louis XIV – The Sun King; divine right, “L’etat
c’est moi” I am the state
– Built palace at Versailles
• Economic Affairs
– Finance minister (Jean Baptiste Colbert) –
furthered industry, built roads, canals, trading
posts in India and N. America
France cont.
• Foreign affairs
– Acquired more territory through war
– Placed a Bourbon relative on the throne of Spain.
– Upon his death, people were weary of wars, taxes,
despotism – leads to French Revolution
Prussia
•
•
•
•
•
Hohenzollern Rule (15th to 18th Centuries)
Autocratic government
Expanded military
Expanded territory
Frederick the Great – aggressive foreign policy
(7 Years’ War); seized much territory
Summary of Absolute Monarchy
• Achievements – weakened the nobles,
provided strong central government, generally
furthered growth of nation states
• Weaknesses – nation’s welfare depended on
one person, sacrificed national well-being for
personal or family interests, led nations into
costly wars, disregarded the rights of the
common people
Summary cont.
• Attacked by Intellectuals
• Writers of the Enlightenment or Age of Reason
believed monarchs
– Used brute force over reason
– Perpetuated despotic government
– Created legal and social inequality
– Promoted ignorance and religious intolerance
– Prevented progress
Enlightened Despots
• Frederick the Great, Prussia; Catherine the
Great, Russia, Joseph II, Austria
• Supported literature, art, music, science,
education, some reforms
• However, autocracy, class distinctions, unfair
taxation, and frequent wars undid any reforms
they made
The Rise of
Parliamentary
Democracy in
England
•
•
Adpted by Cosimo Cannata.
www.studenthandouts.com
•James Stuart (James VI of Scotland) inherited
the English throne from his cousin, Elizabeth I,
in 1603
–Elizabeth I died without producing an
heir
–James VI of Scotland became James I of
England
•Problems with Parliament
–Fought over money
–Fought over religion
•Refused to make reforms to “purify”
the English church of Catholic
practices
•All he agreed to was a new
translation of the Bible (the “King
James Version”)
Charles I
• Charles I inherited the
throne from his father in
1625
– Fought with Parliament
over money
• Needed funding for wars
with France and Spain
– Dissolved Parliament
whenever he couldn’t get
his way
• 1628 – recalled Parliament
• In exchange for money,
Charles I had to sign the
Petition of Right
• He signed it, then ignored it
Religious Problems
• Protestants wanted to get rid of what they saw as
Catholic elements in the Church of England
• Charles I wanted to keep the Anglican (English)
church as it was
– Wanted to make the religion universal throughout
England and Scotland
• Introduced an Anglican prayer book to Scottish Presbyterians
• Scots rebelled and threatened an invasion of England
• Charles I had to recall Parliament yet again for funds for the
defense of England.
•Fall, 1641 – Parliament attempted to limit
royal power
•January, 1642 – Charles I tried to arrest the
leaders of Parliament, but they got away
•Mob gathered outside of the palace
•Charles I fled to the north of England and
raised an army
Parliament was scared that Catholic monarchs
would rule England
Some members of Parliament offered the
throne to James II’s Protestant daughter, Mary,
and her husband, William
James II fled to France
English Bill of Rights (1689)
• England became a constitutional monarchy
– Monarch’s power limited by laws
– William and Mary consented to these changes
• English Bill of Rights
– No taxation without consent of Parliament
– Monarch could not suspend the laws of
Parliament
– Freedom of speech for parliamentary debates
– Citizens free to petition the monarch regarding
grievances
Cabinet System
• Dilemma
– 1688 – no monarch could hold the throne without
Parliament’s consent
– But Parliament needed the monarch’s permission to rule
• 18th century (1700s)
–
–
–
–
Representatives of the majority party formed a cabinet
Cabinet worked closely with the monarch
Leader of the cabinet – Prime Minister
Prime minister and his/her cabinet are effectively the
leaders of the British government today
• Since the joint reign of William and Mary, the role of the monarch
has weakened to the point of being only a ceremonial head of
state
The American Revolution
Major Causes
• The French and Indian War
• The Sugar Act
• The Stamp Act
The French and Indian War—1754
• Rivalry between the French and British
• Who will control North America?
• British, colonists, and
Native American allies
fought French and
Native American allies
The Sugar Act - 1764
• First attempt to raise
income from the Colonies
• Duty on sugar and
molasses not obtained
from Britain
• Smuggling cases tried in
Great Britain
The Stamp Act—1765
• Official government
stamp required
• First internal tax
paying for British
protection
More Major Causes
• The Townshend Acts
• Boston Massacre
• Boston Tea Party
• The Intolerable Acts
The Townshend Acts—1767
• Import duties on tea, lead,
glass, and paint colors
• Money used to pay royal
governors
• “No taxation without
representation”
Townshend
Boston Diary
“Dined with three hundred
and fifty Sons of Liberty, at
Robinson’s, the Sign of Liberty
Tree in Dorchester…. To the
Honour of the Sons, I did not
see one Person intoxicated, or
near it.”
—John Adams (1769)
Single click the speaker icon
to hear the clip >>>>
Boston Massacre—1770
• Crowd of colonists
threaten British
soldiers
• British open fire
killing five Americans
• Parliament canceled
the Townshend
duties
Boston Tea Party—1773
• British sold tea even more cheaply than smuggled tea
• Colonists dressed up as Mohawks
• Colonists boarded
tea ships
• Tea was dumped
overboard
Tea Party Diary
“Last Night 3 Cargoes of Bohea Tea
were emptied into the sea. This
Morning, a Man of War sails. This
is the most magnificent Movement
of all.”
—John
Adams (1773)
The Intolerable Acts—1774
• Closed the Port of Boston
• American town meetings
banned
• British officials in trouble
sent to Great Britain for
trial
Colonists Agreed To:
• Boycott British
goods
• Arm themselves and
form militias
• Appeal to the king
King George III Refused To:
• Allow American
colonist
representation in
Parliament
• No respond to
colonists’
complaints and
official grievances
King George III
“The Shot Heard Round the World”
• American colonists
stockpiled weapons
in Concord,
Massachusetts
• 800 British troops
marched through
Lexington on the
way to Concord
• Paul Revere: “The
British are coming!”
The Armed Militia
• Known as “Minutemen”
• 70 Minutemen on the
Village Green
• Known as the Battle of
Lexington and Concord
• Uncertain which side
fired first
• 50 Americans killed and
45 wounded or missing
• 65 British killed and 208
wounded or missing
The Declaration of Independence
• Written by
Thomas Jefferson
• It is the “Birth Certificate
of the United States”
• Document listed rights
and grievances against
King George III
• 4 parts
1.
Preamble
2.
Declaration of rights
3.
List of Grievances
4.
Resolution
What Happened to those who Signed?
• Five were captured by
the British, though
eventually released
• Approximately 12 had
their homes ransacked
and burned
• One lost his son in the
Continental Army
• Several suffered wounds
in various battles
The Old Regime (Ancien Regime)
• Old Regime – socio-political system which existed
in most of Europe during the 18th century
• Countries were ruled by absolutism – the
monarch had absolute control over the
government
• Classes of people – privileged and unprivileged
– Unprivileged people – paid taxes and treated badly
– Privileged people – did not pay taxes and treated well
Society under the Old Regime
• In France, people were divided into three estates
– First Estate
• High-ranking members of the Church
• Privileged class
– Second Estate
• Nobility
• Privileged class
– Third Estate
• Everyone else – from peasants in the countryside to wealthy
bourgeoisie merchants in the cities
• Unprivileged class
Government under the Old Regime:
The Divine Right of Kings
• Monarch ruled by divine right
– God put the world in motion
– God put some people in positions of power
– Power is given by God
– No one can question God
– No one can question someone put in power by
God
– Questioning the monarchy was blasphemy
because it meant questioning God
Economic Conditions under the
Old Regime
• France’s economy was based primarily on
agriculture
• Peasant farmers of France bore the burden of
taxation
• Poor harvests meant that peasants had trouble
paying their regular taxes
– Certainly could not afford to have their taxes raised
• Bourgeoisie often managed to gather wealth
– But were upset that they paid taxes while nobles did
not
France Is Bankrupt
• The king (Louis XVI) lavished money on himself
and residences like Versailles
• Queen Marie Antoinette was seen as a wasteful
spender
• Government found its funds depleted as a result
of wars
– Including the funding of the American Revolution
• Deficit spending – a government spending more
money than it takes in from tax revenues
• Privileged classes would not submit to being
taxed
Philosophy of the French Revolution:
The Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
• Scientists during the Renaissance had discovered laws
that govern the natural world
• Intellectuals – philosophes – began to ask if natural
laws might also apply to human beings
– Particularly to human institutions such as governments
– Philosophes were secular in thinking – they used reason
and logic, rather than faith, religion, and superstition, to
answer important questions
– Used reason and logic to determine how governments are
formed
• Tried to figure out what logical, rational principles work to tie
people to their governments
– Questioned the divine right of kings
Long- and Short-term Causes
• Long-term causes
– Also known as underlying causes
– Causes which can stem back many years
• Short-term causes
– Also known as immediate causes
– Causes which happen close to the moment the change or action
happens
• Example: A person is fired from his or her job.
– Long-term cause(s): The person is often late to work and is
generally unproductive on the job.
– Short-term cause(s): The person fails to show up for work and
does not call the employer.
• Key: One typically does not happen without the other.
Events which bring important change (or action) need both
long-term and short-term causes.
Long-term Causes of the French
Revolution
Everything previously
discussed
• Absolutism
• Unjust socio-political
system (Old Regime)
• Poor harvests which left
peasant farmers with little
money for taxes
• Influence of
Enlightenment
philosophes
Also
• System of mercantilism
which restricted trade
• Influence of other
successful revolutions
• England’s Glorious
Revolution (1688-1689)
• American Revolution
(1775-1783)
Uprising in Paris
People of Paris seized
weapons from the Bastille
• July 14, 1789
• Parisians organized their
own government which
they called the Commune
• Small groups – factions –
competed to control the
city of Paris
Uprising spread throughout
France
• Nobles were attacked
• Records of feudal dues and
owed taxes were destroyed
• Many nobles fled the
country – became known as
émigrés
• Louis XVI was forced to fly
the new tricolor flag of
France
Goodbye, Versailles! Adieu, Versailles!
• Parisian Commune feared that Louis XVI would
have foreign troops invade France to put down
the rebellion
– Louis XVI’s wife, Marie Antoinette, was the sister of
the Austrian emperor
• A group of women attacked Versailles on October
5, 1789
– Forced royal family to relocate to Paris along with
National Assembly
– Royal family spent next several years in the Tuileries
Palace as virtual prisoners
Changes under the National Assembly
Abolishment of
guilds and labor
unions
Abolition of special
privileges
Constitution of
1791
Declaration of the
Rights of Man
Equality before the
law (for men)
Many nobles left
France and became
known as émigrés
Reforms in local
government
Taxes levied based
on the ability to
pay
Declaration of the Rights of Man
Freedom of
religion
Freedom of
speech
Freedom of
the press
Guaranteed
property
rights
“Liberty,
equality,
fraternity!”
Right of the
people to
create laws
Right to a fair
trial
Declaration of the Rights of
Woman
Women did gain some
rights during the French
Revolution, but these
were designed for
Journalist Olympe de
Madame Jeanne Roland purposes other than
Gouges argued in her
also served as a leader in liberating women.
Declaration of the Rights
the women’s rights
of Woman that women
could inherit property,
movement, and was able • Women
but only because doing so
are equal citizens and
to heavily influence her
weakened feudalism and
should benefit from
reduced wealth among the
husband (a government
governmental reforms just
upper classes.
official).
as men did.
• Divorce became easier, but only
to weaken the Church’s control
over marriage.
End of Special Privileges
• Church lands were seized, divided, and sold to
peasants
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy required that
Church officials be elected by the people, with
salaries paid by the government
– 2/3 of Church officials fled the country rather than
swear allegiance to this
• All feudal dues and tithes were eradicated
• All special privileges of the First and Second
Estates were abolished
Reforms in Local Government
• The 30 provinces and their “petty tyrants”
(Intendants) were replaced with 83 new
departments
– Ruled by elected governors
• New courts, with judges elected by the
people, were established
Constitution of 1791
• Democratic features
– France became a limited monarchy
• King became merely the head of state
– All laws were created by the Legislative Assembly
– Feudalism was abolished
• Undemocratic features
– Voting was limited to taxpayers
– Offices were reserved for property owners
• This new government became known as the
Legislative Assembly
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
• Royal family sought help from Austria
– In June, 1791, they were caught trying to escape to Austria
• Nobles who fled the revolution lived abroad as émigrés
– They hoped that, with foreign help, the Old Regime could
be restored in France
• Church officials wanted Church lands, rights, and
privileges restored
– Some devout Catholic peasants also supported the Church
• Political parties, representing different interests,
emerged
– Girondists
– Jacobins
Opposition to the New Government
• European monarchs feared that revolution would
spread to their own countries
– France was invaded by Austrian and Prussian troops
• In the uproar, the Commune took control of Paris
– Commune was led by Danton, a member of the Jacobin
political party
• Voters began electing representatives for a new
convention which would write a republican
constitution for France
– A republic is a government in which the people elect
representatives who will create laws and rule on their
behalf
– Meanwhile, thousands of nobles were executed under the
suspicion that they were conspirators in the foreign
invasion
Convention (1792-1795)
• On September 22, 1792, the Convention met for
the first time
• Established the First French Republic
• Faced domestic opposition and strife
– Girondists were moderates who represented the rich
middle class of the provinces
– Jacobins (led by Marat, Danton, and Robespierre)
represented workers
• Faced opposition from abroad
– Austria, England, Holland, Prussia, Sardinia, and Spain
formed a Coalition invading France
Abolishment of the Monarchy
• The Convention abolished the monarchy
– As long as the royal family lived, the monarchy could
be restored
– Put the royal couple on trial for treason
• Convictions were a foregone conclusion
– Louis XVI was guillotined on January 21, 1793
– Marie Antoinette was guillotined on October 16, 1793
– Daughter Marie-Thérèse was allowed to go to Vienna
in 1795
• She could not become queen because of Salic law, which did
not allow females to succeed to the throne
– Son Louis-Charles, a.k.a. Louis XVII (lived 1785-1795)
was beaten and mistreated until he died in prison
Government under the Directory
Executive
Legislature
Qualifications
• 5 directors appointed by the Legislature
• Lower house (500 members) proposed laws
• Upper house (250 members) voted on these laws
• 2/3 of the Legislature would initially be filled by members of
the Convention
• Girondists (middle-class party) had defeated the Jacobins
(working- and peasant-class party)
• Girondists’ constitution stated that suffrage (the right to
vote), as well as the right to hold office, were limited to
property owners
Other Parting Reforms
Passed by the Convention
Adopted the metric system
Dealt the final blow to
feudalism by abolishing
primogeniture (the system
whereby the oldest son
inherited all of his father’s
estate)
Drew up a comprehensive
system of laws
Ended debt imprisonment
Ended slavery in France’s
colonies
Established a nationwide
system of public education
Directory (1795-1799)
The Directory suffered from corruption and poor
administration.
The people of France grew poorer and more frustrated
with their government.
Despite, or perhaps because of, these struggles, the French developed a
strong feeling of nationalism – they were proud of their country and
devoted to it.
National pride was fueled by military successes.
It would be a military leader – Napoleon Bonaparte, coming to power
through a coup d’état – who would end the ten-year period (17891799) known as the French Revolution.
NAPOLEON BONAPART
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon’s Rise to Power
• Early Success
– 1793, drove British forces out of Toulon.
– Defeated the Austrians in multiple battles,
forcing the Hapsburg emperor to make
peace.
– Set up a three-man governing board known
as the Consulate.
– Took the title of first consulate and in 1802
had himself named consul for life.
Napoleon’s Rise to Power
• A New France, A New
Emperor
– By 1804, Napoleon had
enough power to
become Emperor.
– Napoleon knew he had
support as he held a
plebiscite, or ballot in
which voters say yes or
no. Each time, the
French strongly
supported him.
France Under Napoleon
• Reforms and the Napoleonic
Code
– Controlled prices, encouraged
industry and built roads and canals
to restore economic prosperity.
– Made peace with the Catholic
Church.
France Under Napoleon
• Napoleonic Code
– Enlightenment
Principles
• Equality of all
citizens, religious
toleration.
• However, women
lost most of their
newly gained rights.
Building an Empire
• A New European Empire
– Napoleon annexed, or added outright to France lands
including the Netherlands, Belgium, parts of Italy and
Germany.
• The Battle of Trafalgar
– French naval defeat at the hands of the British.
• The Continental System
– Economic warfare waged against the British by closing
European ports to British goods. The British responded
with its own blockade.
– This plan did not defeat the British, instead resent grew as
prices throughout Europe rose.
The End of an Era
• Downfall of Napoleon
– Russia
• Czar Alexander I withdraws from the
Continental System due to economic and
political frustrations.
• Napoleon responds by sending 400,000
soldiers to Russia. Instead of fighting,
Russians retreat East, burning crops and
villages (scorched earth) as they went.
• When Napoleon entered Moscow he
realized he could not feed his troops so
he returned home with
only
10,000 troops.
The End of an Era
• Waterloo
– After returning from exile Napoleon fought the
British and Prussian armies at Waterloo, Belgium.
The French lost in a day long battle and Napoleon
was forced into exile again.
• The Congress of Vienna or the settlement of
Vienna (1814-1815)
• Main aims or objectives of Vienna Congress or
circumstances leading to the Congress of
Vienna
• Problems confronting the Vienna Congress
• The main principles of the Congress
• Working procedure of the Congress
• Main decisions taken by the Vienna Congress
• Some other works of the Vienna Congress
• Significance or results of Vienna Congress
• Criticism of the working of the Vienna
Congress
• Decisions taken by Vienna Congress were Just
What was the Industrial
Revolution?
• The Industrial Revolution was a
fundamental change in the way goods
were produced, from human labor to
machines
• The more efficient means of production
and subsequent higher levels of
production triggered far-reaching
changes to industrialized societies
What was the Industrial Revolution?
• The Industrial Revolution was a fundamental
change in the way goods were produced, from
human labor to machines
• The more efficient means of production and
subsequent higher levels of production
triggered far-reaching changes to
industrialized societies
The Industrial Revolution
 Machines were invented which replaced human
labor
 New energy sources were developed to power
the new machinery – water, steam, electricity, oil
(gas, kerosene)
 Some historians place advances in atomic, solar, and
wind energy at the later stages of the Industrial
Revolution
 Increased use of metals and minerals
 Aluminum, coal, copper, iron, etc.
The Industrial Revolution
 Transportation improved
 Ships
○ Wooden ships → Iron ships → Steel ships
○ Wind-powered sails → Steam-powered boilers
 Trains
 Automobiles
 Communication improved
 Telegraph
 Telephone
 Radio
Developments
 Mass production of goods
 Increased numbers of goods
 Increased diversity of goods produced
 Development of factory system of production
 Rural-to-urban migration
 People left farms to work in cities
 Development of capitalism
 Financial capital for continued industrial growth
 Development and growth of new socio-economic classes
 Working class, bourgeoisie, and wealthy industrial class
 Commitment to research and development
 Investments in new technologies
 Industrial and governmental interest in promoting invention, the
sciences, and overall industrial growth
Background of the Industrial
Revolution
 Scientific Revolution
 17th and 18th centuries
 Discoveries of Boyle, Lavoisier, Newton, etc.
 Intellectual Revolution
 17th and 18th centuries
 Writings of Locke, Voltaire, etc.
 Atmosphere of discovery and free intellectual
inquiry
 Greater knowledge of the world
 Weakened superstition and tradition
 Encouraged learning and the search for better and
newer ways of doing things
Development of the Domestic System
of Production
 Domestic system developed in England
 Late 1600s-late 1800s
 Domestic system of production – “putting out”
system
 Businesspeople delivered raw materials to workers’
homes
 Workers manufactured goods from these raw
materials in their homes (typically articles of clothing)
 Businesspeople picked up finished goods and paid
workers wages based on number of items
 Domestic system could not keep up with demand
Factory System
 Developed to replace the domestic system of
production
 Faster method of production
 Workers concentrated in a set location
 Production anticipated demand
 For example: Under the domestic system, a woman
might select fabric and have a businessperson give it
to a home-based worker to make into a dress. Under
the factory system, the factory owner bought large
lots of popular fabrics and had workers create multiple
dresses in common sizes, anticipating that women
would buy them.
England: Birthplace of the Industrial
Revolution
• No concrete start date for the Industrial
Revolution
• Marked by gradual, slow changes
• After 1750 – these changes were
noticeable first in England
Why the Industrial Revolution Started
in England
Capital for
investing in the
means of
production
Colonies and
Markets for
manufactured
goods
Raw materials for
production
Workers
Merchant marine
Geography
England’s Resources: Capital
• The Commercial Revolution made many
English merchants very wealthy
• These merchants had the capital to invest in
the factory system – money to buy buildings,
machinery, and raw materials
England’s Resources: Colonies and
Markets
 Wealth from the Commercial Revolution spread
beyond the merchant class
 England had more colonies than any other nation
 Its colonies gave England access to enormous markets
and vast amounts of raw materials
 Colonies had rich textile industries for centuries
 Many of the natural cloths popular today, such as calico
and gingham, were originally created in India
 China had a silk industry
England’s Resources: Raw Materials
England itself possessed the necessary
raw materials to create the means of
production
Coal – vast coal reserves powered steam
engines
Iron – basic building block of large
machines, railroad tracks, trains, and
ships
England’s Resources: Workers
 Serfdom and guilds ended earlier in England
than other countries
 English people could freely travel from the
countryside to the cities
 Enclosure Acts – caused many small farmers
to lose their lands, and these former
farmers increased the labor supply
England’s Resources: Merchant Marine
• World’s largest merchant fleet
• Merchant marine built up from the
Commercial Revolution
• Vast numbers of ships could bring raw
materials and finished goods to and from
England’s colonies and possessions, as well as
to and from other countries
England’s Resources: Geography
 England is the political center of Great Britain, an
island
 Great Britain (as the entire island was called
beginning in 1707) did not suffer fighting on its
land during the wars of the 18th century
 Island has excellent harbors and ports
 Damp climate benefited the textile industry
(thread did not dry out)
 Government stable
 No internal trade barriers
“Necessity Is the Mother of Invention”
Spinning machine
Need to speed up
weaving
Power loom created
“Necessity Is the Mother of Invention”
Power loom
Increased demand for
raw cotton
Invention of the cotton
gin
“Necessity Is the Mother of Invention”
Cotton gin
Demands for stronger iron
Improvements in iron smelting and
the development of steel
(Bessemer process)
The Textile Industry
• Textiles – cloths or fabrics
• First industry to be industrialized
• Great Britain learned a lot about textiles
from India and China
The Birth and Growth of the Textile
Industry
John Kay (English)
Flying shuttle,
1733
Hand-operated machine which increased the speed of weaving
James Hargreaves (English)
Spinning jenny,
1765
Home-based machine that spun thread 8 times faster than when spun
by hand
Richard Arkwright (English)
Water frame, 1769
Water-powered spinning machine that was too large for use in a
home – led to the creation of factories
The Birth and Growth of the Textile
Industry
Samuel Crompton (English)
Spinning mule, 1779
Combined the spinning jenny and the water frame into a single device, increasing
the production of fine thread
Edward Cartwright (English)
Power loom, 1785
Water-powered device that automatically and quickly wove thread into cloth
Eli Whitney (American)
Cotton gin, 1793
Device separated raw cotton from cotton seeds, increasing the cotton supply while
lowering the cost of raw cotton
Elias Howe (American)
Sewing machine, 1846
Speed of sewing greatly increased
Development of Steam Engines
• Early water power involved mills built over
fast-moving streams and rivers
• Early water power had problems
– Not enough rivers to provide the power needed
to meet growing demand
– Rivers and streams might be far removed from
raw materials, workers, and markets
– Rivers are prone to flooding and drying
Steam Power
 Humans tried harnessing steam power for
millennia
 Hero of Alexandria, Egypt – created a steam-driven
device in the 1st century B.C.E.
 Thomas Newcomen, England (1704)
 Created a steam engine to pump water from mines
 James Watt, Scotland (1769)
 Improved Newcomen’s engine to power machinery
Steam Engines
• By 1800, steam engines were replacing water
wheels as sources of power for factories
• Factories relocated near raw materials,
workers, and ports
• Cities grew around the factories built near
central England’s coal and iron mines
– Manchester, Liverpool
Coal and Iron
 Vast amounts of fuel were required to smelt iron
ore to burn out impurities
 Abraham Darby (1709)
 Discovered that heating coal turned it into more
efficient coke
 John Smeaton (1760)
 Smelted iron by using water-powered air pumps to
create steam blasts
 Henry Cort (1783)
 Developed the puddling process which purified and
strengthened molten iron
Increases in Coal and Iron Production,
1770-1800
• Coal production doubled
– 6 million to 12 million tons
• Pig iron production increased 250%
– 1800 – 130,000 tons
• Great Britain produced as much coal and iron
as every other country combined
The Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire
in the 19th century
• In the political history of the weakening Ottoman Empire,
the 19th century has been the “longest” century.
• Realizing that the Empire was no more able to shape its own
fate, the Ottoman monarchs and the newly risen political
institution in the Ottoman state, the Sublime Porte (Bab-ı
Ali) and Ottoman political élite sought to achieve the
survival of the Empire according to a new foreign policy
doctrine: the European “balance of power”.
The Great Powers and the Ottoman
Empire in the 19th century
• In the political history of the weakening Ottoman
Empire, the 19th century has been the “longest”
century.
• Realizing that the Empire was no more able to shape
its own fate, the Ottoman monarchs and the newly
risen political institution in the Ottoman state, the
Sublime Porte (Bab-ı Ali) and Ottoman political élite
sought to achieve the survival of the Empire
according to a new foreign policy doctrine: the
European “balance of power”.
• France had been for centuries the main partner and
sometimes ally of the Ottoman Empire in Europe.
However, during the Napoleonic Wars, it have occupied
the Ottoman province of Egypt and, at the end of the
same era, lost its “greatest great power” status in the
European politics.
• Like in the earlier century, in the 19th century, the
Russian Empire was to be the “most dangerous” Great
Power for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans were to
fight Russia in four different occasions during the
century: 1806-1812, 1828-29, 1853-56, 1877-78.
The Russian tsar, Nicholas I was to name the Ottoman
Empire “the sick man of Europe” in 1853, just before the
Crimean War.
• Unfortunately for the Ottoman Empire, at the end of
the Napoleonic Wars, Russia has emerged as the
“greatest land power” – replacing France - among the
five existing Great Powers (Britain, France, Russia,
Prussia, Austria). The Empire of the Romanovs was to
stay as such until the appearance of a united German
Empire in the European political scene in 1871.
• The Habsburg empire of Austria was anxious about its
leading position in the “German” central Europe versus
the rising force of the Prussian state of the House of
Hohenzollern.
Moreover, Austria was looking forward to enlarging its
territories in the Balkans at the expense of the the
Ottoman Empire.
• Prussia, overrun by the Napoleonic France at the
beginning of the century, was to build up and
restructure its reputated military power. While doing so,
the state of the Hohenzollern was not to provoke its
giant neighbor in the East, Russia.
The main concern of the Prussian crown was to achieve
the German unification at the expense of the traditional
“big brother” of the German world, Austria.
For Prussia, the fate of the Ottoman Empire, the
“Eastern Question”, was not at all a part of the foreign
policy prorities.
• Britain was left in the 19th century as the only able and
willing power to protect the Ottoman Empire. It had
the confirmed mastery of the seas at the end of the
Napoleonic Wars and wanted definitely to see the
Turkish Straits at the hands of a weak and friendly
Ottoman Empire rather than the mighty Russian
Empire.
Britain was anxious about the Russian military power
after the fall of Napoleonic France and considered
Russia as the future power to struggle with.
Britain, together with the Second French Empire of
Napoleon III, went as far as fighting on the side of the
Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War 1853-56.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, the then Sultan
Selim III was a reformer ruler, he believed in the
necessity of large –scale reforms for the survival of the
Empire.
• However, his “New Order” (Nizam-ı Cedid) was
genuinely disliked by the janissary military clan and the
reformer Sultan was dethroned in 1808, in the middle of
the Russo-Ottoman War of 1806-12, by a revolt of the
latter.
• In July, 1808, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, the influential
feudal ruler (ayan) of Rusçuk invaded Istanbul by his
personal forces numbering 15.000 troops.
• It was too late to save the ill-fated monarch but the
revolt was suppressed and Mahmud II was enthroned
under the protection of Mustafa Pasha, the new grand
vizier.
• As an initiative of the new grand vizier, Sened-i Ittifak
(Bill of Alliance) was signed between the monarch and
the provincial rulers (ayans). It was a late constitutional
chart in the Ottoman Empire - and also proved the
weakness of the central government.
• In a further revolt of the janissaries, the reformer grand
vizier was killed and the Sultan had to give concessions
to the former, such as the abolishment of the new model
army “Sekban-ı Cedid”.
• In the Greek Rebellion starting in 1821 in Pelloponnesia
(Morea), the janissary troops proved to be unefficient
once again.
• In their revolt of June 1826, the loyal troops of
Mahmud II and the people of Istanbul fought together
the janissaries and anhilated this old military clan.
• However, the annihilation of the janissary clan did not
help the suppression of the Greek Rebellion in Morea.
• The modern Egyptian land and naval forces of Mehmet
Ali Pasha, led by his son Ibrahim Pasha in Greece,
achieved to suppress the rebellion, however, in 1827, the
combined fleets of Britain, France and Russia destroyed
the joint Ottoman-Egyptian-Algerian fleets at
Navarino.
• After this foreign intervention of the Great Powers, the
rebellion restarted with a great élan and succeeded.
• Moreover, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire
in 1828 and its armies reached Edirne in the west and
Erzurum in the east.
• In September 1829, the Edirne Treaty recognizing the
independence of Greece was signed between the Russian
and Ottoman empires.
• The following year, the defeated France of the
Napoleonic Wars, occupied Algeria which had formerly
lost its fleet in Navarino.
• In 1831, Egyptian armies of Kavalalı Mehmed Ali
Pasha led by his son claimed and occupied the Syrian
and Palestinian provinces of the Ottoman Empire as a
compensation of their losses in Navarino.
• The advancing Egyptian forces defeated the Ottoman
troops in several battles and reached Kütahya in
Anatolia.
• Mahmud II invited Russian troops to Istanbul in order
to protect his capital from his rebel governor.
• Anxious about the stunning successes of Mehmed Ali
and Russian intervention, Britain and France enforced
the Treaty of Kütahya in April 1833 to the conflicting
sides.
• Accordingly, Mahmud II had to leave the governorships
of the provinces of Hedjaz, Syria, Palestine and Adana
to the autonomous governor (Hidiv) of Egypt, Mehmed
Ali Pasha.
• In July 1833, the Ottoman and Russian empires signed
the Treaty of Hünkar Iskelesi promising Russian help
against Egyptian threat and restricting the passage of
the foreign ships from the Straits according to the
interests of the Tsar.
• However, in August 1838, in order to win its support
against his rebel governor, supported to some extent by
France, Mahmud II gave large commercial privileges to
Britain.
• On 21 April 1839, Mahmud II restarted his war on
Mehmet Ali Pasha, however, his army was defeated at
the battle of Nizip.
• Fearing from the implementation of the Treaty of
Hünkar Iskelesi, Britain and France intervened quickly
and this time returned the governorships of the province
of Hedjaz, Syria, Palestine and Adana to the Ottoman
crown.
• The new and young Sultan Abdulmedjit under the
pressure of a handfull statesmen and Great Powers
proclaimed the “Imperial Edict of Reorganization”
(Tanzimat) on November 3, 1839.
The Results of the
Industrial Revolution
Results of the Industrial Revolution
Economic
Changes
• Expansion of world trade
• Factory system
• Mass production of goods
• Industrial capitalism
• Increased standard of living
• Unemployment
Political
Changes
• Decline of landed aristocracy
• Growth and expansion of democracy
• Increased government involvement in society
• Increased power of industrialized nations
• Nationalism and imperialism stimulated
• Rise to power of businesspeople
Social
Changes
• Development and growth of cities
• Improved status and earning power of women
• Increase in leisure time
• Population increases
• Problems – economic insecurity, increased deadliness of war, urban slums, etc.
• Science and research stimulated
Social Changes:
Development and Growth of Cities
Paris
• 18th century 600,000 people
• Circa 1900 – over
2,714,000 in the
Paris urban area
• Circa 2000 – over
11,000,000 in the
Paris urban area
London
• 18th century –
500,000 people
• Circa 1900 – over
6,200,000 in the
London urban area
• Circa 2000 - over
7,100,000 in the
London urban area
• Rural-to-urban migrants – people who left the countryside to live in cities
• A sign of an industrialized nation is that a large proportion of the
population lives and works in urban areas
Social Change: Development and
Growth of Cities
Case Studies: Liverpool and Manchester
Liverpool
Manchester
• 1800 – population under 100,000
• 1850 – population over 300,000
(part of the increase due to Irish
fleeing the potato famine)
• 1900 – population over 700,000
• Major British port city which grew
during the Industrial Revolution
• Population peaked in the 1930s
and has been declining ever since
due to the decline in
manufacturing and imperialism
• 1800 – population circa 328,000
• 1850 – population circa 1,037,000
• 1900 – population circa 2,357,000
• Nicknamed “Cottonopolis” in the
mid-to-late 19th century because
of its textile factories
• Began to decline after the
Industrial Revolution but has
stabilized due to new industries
and greater business
diversification
Social Changes: Improved Status and
Earning Power of Women
 Initially, factory owners hired women and children
because they worked for lower wages
 This brought many women, otherwise impoverished, to
cities to work in factories
 Governments limited the work of children and, at times, of
women
 Women gained economic power and independence
 Before industrialization, it was almost impossible for a
woman to remain single and live on her own
 Factories and urban centers attracted women in large
numbers
 Women fought for and eventually gained political rights
Social Changes:
Increase in Leisure Time
 Labor-saving devices invented and produced
 Vacuum cleaners
 Washing machines
 Refrigerators
 Entrepreneurs and inventors developed new forms of
entertainment
 Moving pictures
 Amusement parks
 Birth of the weekend
 Traditionally, Western nations had Sunday (the Christian day of rest) as
the only day off from work
 Saturday was added (after the struggles of Jewish labor unionists) to
accommodate the religious observances of Jewish factory workers
(whose Sabbath, or Shabbat, runs from Friday at sundown to Saturday
at sundown)
Social Changes: Problems
• Monotony of assembly lines and factory life
• Loss of craftsmanship in manufactured goods
• War became more deadly as weapons became
more technologically advanced and were mass
produced
• Economic insecurity – workers relied entirely
on their jobs for sustenance
Social Changes:
Science and Research Stimulated
Scientific and technological discoveries
became profitable instead of simply beneficial
Companies and governments were willing to
invest in research and development
Patent law
 Came into its modern form under England’s
Queen Anne (reigned 1702-1714)
 Inventors have the exclusive right to produce their
new inventions for a period of time
Slum Living Conditions
 Factory towns – often built and owned by factories
 Not a strange concept to rural-to-urban migrants who were
used to living on a lord’s estate or property
 Full of crowded tenements
 Few amenities
 Tenements – buildings with rented multiple dwellings
 Apartment buildings with a more negative connotation
 Overcrowded and unsanitary
 Workers were unsatisfied both inside and outside the
factories
Rise of Labor Unions
 Before labor unions, workers bargained
individually – “individual bargaining”
 Before factories, a worker could bargain for better
wages and working conditions by arguing his or her
particular skills
 But in factories, work is routine and one worker can
easily replace another
 With labor unions, workers bargained together as
a group, or collective – “collective bargaining”
 Organized groups of workers elected leaders to bargain
on their behalf
 Used tools (such as strikes) to gain rights
Weapons Used by Unions and
Employers
Weapons Used by Employers
• At-will employment
• Blacklists
• Company unions
• Individual bargaining
• Injunctions
• Laws that limit union activities
• Lockouts
• Open shops
• Outsourcing
• Relocation
• Right-to-work laws
• Threat of foreign competition
• Welfare capitalism
• Yellow-dog contracts
Weapons Used by Unions
• Boycotts
• Check-offs
• Closed shops
• Collective bargaining
• Direct political action
• Favorable labor legislation
• Feather-bedding
• Lobbying
• Picketing
• Sabotage
• Strikes
• Union label
• Union shops
British Labor Achievements
Year(s)
Event(s)
1799-1800
Combination Laws: Outlawed unions and strikes.
1867
Disraeli Reform Act: Suffrage for workers.
1875
Repeal of the Combination laws; unions and strikes legalized. Union membership grew as a result.
1900
Labour Party: Founded by bringing together different groups representing trade unions, etc.
1901
Taft Vale Decision: House of Lords ruled that unions would have to pay financial damages caused by
strikes (such as loss of income to employers), which threatened to end Britain’s unions.
After 1901
Labour Party: Worked for workers’ rights. (Other major British political parties were Liberals [Whigs] and
Conservatives [Tories].)
1906
Trade Disputes Act: Protected union funds from the Taft Vale court decision. Achieved by Liberal and
Labour parties working together.
1909
Osborne Judgment: Banned trade unions from donating funds to political parties. Hurt the Labour party
because poorer, working class party members could not provide salaries to party’s elected
representatives.
1911
Parliament Act: Stopped the House of Lords from vetoing laws passed by the House of Commons. Paid
members of parliament an annual salary.
1920s
Labour Party: Surpassed the Liberal party in power.
1940s-1950s
Social security: Labour party government brought increased social programs, including socialized
medicine, along with government control of several industries (electricity, steel, television).
British Labor Achievements
Year(s)
Event(s)
1799-1800
Combination Laws: Outlawed unions and strikes.
1867
Disraeli Reform Act: Suffrage for workers.
1875
Repeal of the Combination laws; unions and strikes legalized. Union membership grew as a result.
1900
Labour Party: Founded by bringing together different groups representing trade unions, etc.
1901
Taft Vale Decision: House of Lords ruled that unions would have to pay financial damages caused by
strikes (such as loss of income to employers), which threatened to end Britain’s unions.
After 1901
Labour Party: Worked for workers’ rights. (Other major British political parties were Liberals [Whigs] and
Conservatives [Tories].)
1906
Trade Disputes Act: Protected union funds from the Taft Vale court decision. Achieved by Liberal and
Labour parties working together.
1909
Osborne Judgment: Banned trade unions from donating funds to political parties. Hurt the Labour party
because poorer, working class party members could not provide salaries to party’s elected
representatives.
1911
Parliament Act: Stopped the House of Lords from vetoing laws passed by the House of Commons. Paid
members of parliament an annual salary.
1920s
Labour Party: Surpassed the Liberal party in power.
1940s-1950s
Social security: Labour party government brought increased social programs, including socialized
medicine, along with government control of several industries (electricity, steel, television).
Legal Protections for Workers
• Limited hours for women
– Later – equal pay for equal work
• Eventual end to child labor
– Schools and requirements for school attendance
grew as children were removed from the
workforce
• Health and safety codes
• Minimum wage
• Legalization of unions
Rights of Female and Child Workers
 Women and children could legally be paid less than
men for the same work
 Factory owners were more willing to hire them
 Male workers grew resentful
 English child laborers
 England had a history (going back to the 17th century) of
training pauper children (even those younger than five
years old) in a trade
 Poor children followed their mothers into factories
 Early male-dominated unions fought to banish women
and children from the workplace
 Eventually this strategy was abandoned
 Women eventually won right to equal pay for equal work
 Though women today, in reality, still earn less than men at the same
types of work