Transcript 1820-1840 revolutions

Revolutions 1820’s-1840’s
An Evaluation of the Congress of
Vienna
4 The Congress of Vienna was criticized for ignoring the liberal &
nationalist aspirations of so many peoples.
4 The leading statesmen at Vienna underestimated the new
nationalism and liberalism
generated by the French
Revolution.
4 Not until the unification of
Germany in 1870-71 was the
balance of power upset.
4 Not until World War I did
Europe have another general war.
Revolutionary Movements in the Early 19c
Wallachia & Moldavia
Independence
Movements
in the Balkans
Greek Revolution - 1821
The Concert of Europe: The Greek
Revolt
• In 1821, the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman
Turk masters
– The Greeks had been dominated for 400 years
– The Muslim Ottomans had permitted Greek religious
orthodoxy
– Revival of Greek nationalistic sentiment beginning 19th
century sparked desire for freedom from the “terrible
yoke of Turkish oppression”
– Continental powers come to the aid of the Greeks
4/9/2016
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Greek Independence
4 The “Eastern Question”
4 Hetairia Philike  a secret
society that inspired an uprising against
the Turks in 1821.
4 Pan-Hellenism
4 1827  Battle of Navarino
 Britain, France, Russsia destroyed
the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet.
4 1828  Russia declared war
on the Ottoman Empire.
4 1829  Treaty of Adrianople
4 1830  Greece declared an independent
nation [Treaty of London].
4 Greek revolt the only successful
Greece on the Ruins of Missilonghi
by Delacroix, 1827
revolt until 1830; thus
conservative domination still
intact
The Decembrist Uprising - 1825
The Decembrist Revolt, 1825
4 Russian upper class had come into contact with western liberal
ideas during the Napoleonic Wars.
4 Late November, 1825  Czar Alexander I died suddenly.
 He had no direct heir  dynastic crisis
•
•
Constantine  married a woman, not of royal blood.
•
Russian troops were to take an oath of allegiance to Nicholas, who was
less popular than Constantine [Nicholas was seen as more reactionary].
Nicholas  named by Alexander I as his heir before his
death.
 December 26, 1825  a Moscow regiment marched into the
Senate Square in St. Petersburg and refused to take the oath.
The Decembrist Revolt, 1825
4 They wanted Constantine.
4 Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents.
 Over 60 were killed.
 5 plotters were executed.
 Over 100 insurgents were exiled to Siberia.
4 Results:
 The first rebellion in modern Russian history where the rebels had
specific political goals.
 In their martyrdom, the Decembrists came to symbolize the
dreams/ideals of all Russian liberals.
 Nicholas was determined that his power would never again come
into question  he was terrified of change!
The 1830 Revolutions
France: The “Restoration” Era
4 France emerged from the chaos of its
(1815-1830)
revolutionary period as the most liberal
large state in Europe.
4 Louis XVIII governed France as a
Constitutional monarch.
 He agreed to observe the 1814
“Charter” or Constitution of the
Restoration period.
•
•
•
•
Limited royal power.
Granted legislative power.
Protected civil rights.
Upheld the Napoleon Code.
Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824)
The “Ultras”
4 France was divided by those who had
accepted the ideals of the French Revolution
and those who didn’t.
4 Ultraroyalists criticized king for keeping so
many of Napoleon’s policies
4 “Ultras” hoped to return to monarchy with
landed aristocracy and an influential Catholic
Church
4 The Count of Artois was the leader of the
“Ultra-Royalists”
4 1815 “White Terror”
 Royalist mobs killed 1000s of former
revolutionaries.
4 1816 elections
The Count of Artois,
the future King Charles X
(r. 1824-1830)
 The Ultras were rejected in the
Chamber of Deputies election in favor
of a moderate royalist majority
dependent on middle class support.
France: Conservative Backlash
4 1820the Duke of Berri, son of Artois, was murdered.
4 Royalists blamed the left (liberals)
4 Louis XVIII moved the govt. more to the right (conservative)
 Changes in electoral laws narrowed the eligible voters.
 Censorship was imposed.
4 Liberals were driven out of legal political life and into illegal
activities.
4 1823 triumph of reactionary forces!
4 French troops were authorized by the Concert of Europe to crush the
Spanish Revolution and restore another Bourbon ruler, Ferdinand VII, to the
throne there.
4 1824-> Louis XVIII dies and brother Charles X took the position of
the ultraroyalists
King Charles X of France (r. 1824-1830)
4 His Goals:
 Lessen the influence of the middle
class.
 Limit the right to vote.
 Put the clergy back in charge
of education.
 Public money used to pay nobles
for the loss of their lands during
the Fr Revolution.
4 His Program:
 Attack the 1814 Charter.
 Control the press.
 Dismiss the Chamber of Deputies when it turned against him.
 Appointed an ultra-reactionary as his first minister.
What type of leader is he sound like?
King Charles X of France (r. 1824-1830)
4 1830 Election brought in another liberal majority.
4 July Ordinances
 Charles dissolved the entire parliament.
 Strict censorship imposed.
 Changed the voting laws so that the government in the future
could be assured of a conservative victory.
To the Barracades  Revolution, Again!!
Workers, students and some of the middle class call for a Republic!
The Revolution of 1830
Liberals and Radicals
• Radicals favored extreme change
• In Paris, angry citizens threw up barricades across the narrow
streets.
• They fired on the soldiers and pelted them with stones and roof
tiles.
• Within days rebels controlled Paris.
• The revolution tricolor flew from the towers of Norte Dame
cathedral.
• Because of this Charles X got scared and fled to England. When
the King left, radicals wanted to set up a republic.
• Liberals however insisted on a constitutional monarchy and chose
Louis Philippe as King.
• He was Charles X’s cousin and was supported by the youth in the
revolution of 1789.
• The French called Louis Philippe the “citizen king” because he
owed his throne to the people.
Louis Philippe  The “Citizen King”
4 The Duke of Orleans.
4 Relative of the Bourbons, but
had stayed clear of the Ultras.
4 Leads a thoroughly bourgeois life.
4 His Program:
 Property qualifications reduced
enough to double eligible voters.
 Press censorship abolished.
 The King ruled by the will of the
people, not by the will of God.
 The French Revolution’s tricolor
replaced the Bourbon flag.
4 The government was now under the control of
the wealthy middle class.
(r. 1830-1848)
Louis Philippe  The “Citizen King”
4 His government ignored the needs and
demands of the workers in the cities.
 They were seen as another nuisance
and source of possible disorder.
4 July, 1832  an uprising in Paris was
put down by force and 800 were killed
or wounded.
4 1834  Silk workers strike in Lyon was
crushed.
 Seething underclass.
A caricature of
Louis Philippe
 Was seen as a violation of the status
quo set down at the Congress of
Vienna.
Popular Press and Criticism of Louis-
Philippe
• Growing literacy in France
– 1830: 50% of men and 40% of
women
– 1848: 66% of men and 50% of
women
• New technology of lithography
made the reproduction of images
much easier. Political cartoons and
caricatures became important
aspects of French political
discourse.
• Public opinion was an increasingly
salient aspect of politics, and the
public was increasingly influenced
by mass media.
Repression
Honoré Daumier, Rue Transnonian (July 1834). French troops
massacred eleven people in an apartment building located near a street
barricade in 1834 uprisings.
Belgium Wins independence
• In 1815, the Congress of Vienna had united the
Austrian Netherlands (present-day Belgium) and the
Kingdom of Holland under the Dutch King.
• They wanted to create a strong barrier to help prevent
French expansion in the future.
• French-speaking Belgians and Dutch had different
beliefs such as:
– Different Languages
– Belgians were Catholic; Dutch were Protestant
– Belgians relied on manufacturing; Dutch relied on trade.
Belgian Independence, 1830
4 The first to follow the lead of France.
4 Its union with Holland after the Congress of Vienna had not proved
successful.
4 There had been
very little popular
agitation for Belgian
nationalism before
1830  seldom had
nationalism arisen so
suddenly.
4 Wide cultural
differences:
 North  Dutch  Protestant  seafarers and traders.
 South  French  Catholic  farmers and individual workers.
Belgium Wins independence
• In 1830, news of the Paris uprising ignited a revolutionary
spark in Belgium.
• Citizens took up arms against the Dutch troops.
• Britain and France believed that they would benefit from the
separation.
• In 1831, Belgium became an independent state with a liberal
constitution.
Belgian Revolution - 1830
Rebels fail in Poland
• Nationalists in Poland also staged an uprising in 1830.
• Unlike the Belgians, the Poles failed to win independence.
• In the late 1700s, Russia, Austria, and Prussia had divided up
Poland.
• The Poles hoped in 1815 that the Congress of Vienna would
restore their homeland.
• Instead, the great powers handed most of Poland to Russia.
• In 1830, Polish students, army officers, and landowners rose
in revolt.
• They failed to gain widespread support.
• Some survivors fled to Western Europe and the United States.
A Stirring of Polish Nationalism 1830
A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830
4 The bloodiest struggle of the 1830 revolutions.
4 The Poles in and around Warsaw gain a special status by the Congress of
Vienna within the Russian Empire.
 Their own constitution.
 Local autonomy granted in 1818.
4 After Tsar Alexander I dies, the Poles became restless under the tyrannical
rule of Tsar Nicholas I.
4 Polish intellectuals were deeply influenced by Romanticism.
4 Rumors reached Poland that Nicholas I was planning to use Polish troops to
put down the revolutions in France and Belgium.
4 Several Polish secret societies rebelled.
A Stirring of Polish Nationalism - 1830
4 Had the Poles been united, this
revolt might have been successful.
 But, the revolutionaries
were split into moderates
and radicals.
4 The Poles had hoped that France &
England would come to their aid,
but they didn’t.
4 Even so, it took the Russian army
a year to suppress this rebellion.
4 The irony  by drawing the Russian army to Warsaw for almost a year,
the Poles may well have kept Nicholas I from answering Holland’s call
for help in suppressing the Belgian Revolt.
Europe in 1830
The Results of the 1820s-1830 Revolutions?
1. The Concert of Europe provided for a recovery of Europe after the long
years of Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.
2. The conservatives did NOT reverse ALL of the reforms put in place by the
French Revolution.
3. Liberalism would challenge the conservative plan for European peace and
law and order.
4. These revolutions were successful only in Western Europe:
 Their success was in their popular support.
 Middle class lead, aided by the urban lower classes.
5. The successful revolutions had benefited the middle
class  the workers, who had done so much of the rioting and fighting,
were left with empty hands!
6. Therefore, these revolutions left much unfinished & a seething, unsatisfied
working class.
The Revolutions
The turning point at which history failed to turn…
- George Macaulay Trevelyan, 1937
We are sleeping on a volcano... A wind of revolution blows,
the storm is on the horizon.- Alexis de Tocqueville
Pre-1848 Tensions: Long-Term
• Industrialization
– Economic challenges to rulers.
– Rapid urbanization.
– Challenges to the artisan class.
• Population doubled in the 18c
– Food supply problems  Malthus
• Ideological Challenges
– Liberalism, nationalism, democracy, socialism.
• Romanticism
• Repressive Measures
– Carlsbad Decrees Prussia- banned nationalist fraternities
– Six Acts England- labeled all meeting of radical reform treasonable
– Secret police created in many European states.
Pre-1848 Tensions: Short-Term
• Agricultural Crises
– Poor cereal harvests
• prices rose 60% in one year.
– Potato blight  Ireland
• Prices rose 135% for food in one year!
• Financial Crises
– Investment bubbles burst  railways, iron, coal.
– Unemployment increased rapidly [esp. among the artisan
class, why do you think?].
Working & middle classes are now joined in misery as are the urban
and agricultural peasantry!
France: Prince Louis: Not Too Steady!
Victor Hugo & Miguel de Girardin try to raise Prince Louis upon a shield.
[Honoré Damier’s lithograph published in Charavari, December 11, 1848].
The Revolutions of 1848
• Yet Another French Revolution
– Government is involved in scandals, corruption, and
failure to initiate reform
– Radicals started forming secret societies for the French
government.
– The bread prices increased
– Law forbade political rallies but political banquets were
held instead
– Liberals denounced Louis Philippe’s for corruption
– Working class and liberals unhappy with King Louis
Philippe, esp. his minister Francois Guizot (who
opposed electoral reform).
– King dismisses Guizot, but riots break out.
The February Revolution
• Reform Banquets used to
protest against the King.
– Paris Banquet banned.
– Troops open fire on peaceful
protestors.
– Barricades erected; looting.
– National Guard [politically
disenfranchised] defects to the
radicals.
– King Louis Philippe loses
control of Paris and abdicates
on February 24 and flees to
Britain.
The Provisional Government
• Second French Republic declared by Chamber of
deputies.
• Moderate republicans led by liberal Alphonse Lamartine
(allied w/ bourgeoisie)
• Socialists led by Louis Blanc
• national workshops, which were corporative factories run
by the workers, created by Blanc to provide work for the
unemployed
• Reforms: abolished slavery in the empire, 10 hr workday in
Paris, abolished death penalty.
• April elections for new Constituent Assembly resulted in
conflict between moderate republicans (who won) and
socialists
The Coalition Splits: Mar.-May
• The conflicts between liberals & socialists over:
– The timing of elections to the Constituent Assembly.
– The costs of government social programs.
• Did they violate laissez-faire?
– The question of whether you could have liberty for all
men and still have a system based on private property.
• Growing social tensions between the working class & the
bourgeois middle class regarding:
– The nature of work.
– The right to unionize.
– Pay levels.
April Elections
• Resulted in a conservative majority in the National
Assembly.
– They began debating the fate of social programs
[like the National Workshops].
– In early June, the National Workshops were shut
down. The number in the workshops had grown
from 10,000 to 120,000, empting the treasury
and scaring the moderates
• This heightened class tensions!
The “June Days”
• Worker groups in Paris rose up in insurrection.
– They said that the government had betrayed the
revolution.
• Workers wanted a redistribution of wealth.
• Workers sought war against poverty and redistribution
of income.
– Barricades in the streets.
• Victor Hugo’s Les Miserables was based on this event.
• A new liberal-conservative coalition formed to oppose this
lower class radicalism.
Paris: To the Barricades Again!
Insurrections against the July Monarchy
•
Victor Hugo, Les Misérables
*hod-a trough used for carrying bricks or
mortar
These insurrections were immortalized in Victor
Hugo’s Les Misérables
– “The barricade of Saint Antoine was
monstrous; it was three stories high and seven
hundred feet long.... It was the collaboration
of the pavement, the pebble, the timber, the
iron bar, the chip, the broken square, the
stripped chair, the cabbage stump, the scrap,
the rag.... Its crest was thorny with muskets,
with swords, with clubs, with axes, with pikes,
and with bayonets; a huge red flag fluttered in
the wind; there were heard cries of command,
songs of attack, the roll of the drum, the sobs
of women, and the dark wild laughter of the
starving. ... The spirit of revolution covered ...
that summit whereupon growled this voice of
the people which is like the voice of God; a
strange majesty emanated from that titanic
hodful* of refuse. It was a garbage heap and
it was Sinai.”
The 2nd French Republic (1848-1852)
G General Louis Cavaignac
assumed dictatorial powers &
crushed the revolt.
 10,000 dead.
 Four thousand prisoners deported
to Algeria in North Africa
 A victory for conservatives.
G November 1848  a new
constitution provided for:
The Republic
by
Jean-Leon Gerome
 An elected President.
 A one-house legislature.
-When the revolutions of 1848 died down in
France, there were four candidates for president.
The Constituent Assembly wanted a strong
executive—and they wanted the president to be
elected by universal male suffrage.
- Among the four candidates was a Napoleon—a
second Napoleon, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte.
Who was he? He was the son of Napoleon’s
brother, Louis, who had married Hortense,
Josephine’s daughter. So, in fact LouisNapoleon was a descendant of both Napoleon
and Josephine.
He was helped by what historians call the
“Napoleonic legend.” It is a fact that
Napoleon’s reputation grew after his death--and after the memories of the millions
who died as a result of his policy faded
away…
Twice this young Napoleon tried to seize
power, in a way that would be similar to
Hitler’s Putsches in the 1920’s—
• In Strasbourg in 1836
• In Boulogne in 1840
Back to President Louis
Napoleon
• The December election:
– The “law and order” candidate, Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte, defeated Cavaignac.
– This was a big shift in middle class opinion to the
right!
•
•
•
•
•
The Results
5,400,000 for Louis Napoleon
1,500,000 for Cavaignac
370,000 for Ledru-Rollin
18,000 for Lamartine
• The New President:
• He brought in a new constitution in May 1849
– Purged the government of all radical officials.
• Replaced them with ultra-conservative and
monarchists.
– Disbanded the National Assembly and held new
elections.
• Represented himself as a “Man of the People.”
– His government regularly used forced against
dissenters.
– Then, in a more aggressive move, he rescinded
universal male suffrage—making sure that the
poorest, or most republican voters, were
disenfranchised
1851 Coup d’Etat
• 1852: Louis Napoleon
consolidates power and
becomes Emperor
Napoleon III
• A national plebiscite
confirmed this.
– The official vote was
7,439,216 for Napoleon,
646,737 opposed. So
now, twice, Napoleon
had been elected by
popular vote
A wave of Nationalist Revolutions spread over Europe…
What did the
people
want?
What do you
think the
Congress of
Vienna did
about it?
Revolution in the Germanic States
• The Paris revolution caused many German rulers to
propose changes
• Liberals demanded constitutional government and a
union or federation of German states.
• Frederick William IV rejected liberal constitution;
imposed conservative one that guaranteed royal
control of gov’t (lasted until 1918).
– In Prussia, concessions were made to appease
revolutionaries
• King Frederick William IV agreed to abolish censorship,
establish a new constitution, and work for a united Germany
• The “united Germany” promise led to an all-German
parliament to meet in Frankfurt
Revolution in the Germanic States
• The Frankfurt Assembly was dominated by welleducated, highly articulate men
– Nationalism was on their minds and they were ahead
of the times when compared to their governments
– There ensued a debate about establishing a “Big
Germany” or “Small Germany”
– The assembly disbanded, unable to agree on a
German state
The Austrian Empire: 1830
Revolution in Austria, 1848
• Habsburg empire was vulnerable to revolutionary challenge
• Ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals: Hungarians, Slavs,
Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, and others. (More non-Germans than
Germans lived in the empire)
• Austrian government was reactionary; liberal institutions were nonexistent.
• Social reliance on serfdom doomed masses of people to a life without
hope.
• Corrupt and inefficient.
• Competition with an increasingly powerful Prussia
• “February Revolution” in France sparked rebellion for liberal reforms.
Vienna, 1848: The Liberal
Revolution
• March 13  rioting
broke out in Vienna.
– The Austrian Empire
collapsed.
• Metternich fled.
• Constituent Assembly
met.
• Serfdom [robot] abolished.
– The revolution began to wane.
• The revolutionary government failed to govern
effectively.
• Ferdinand I abdicates, Habsburgs restored royal
absolutism under Franz Joseph (r. 1848-1916).
The New Austrian
Emperor Franz Joseph I [r. 1848-1916]
The Hungarian Revolution
• Louis Kossuth (1802-1894) Hungarian
(Magyar nationalist) leader demanded
independence.
• The Hungarian liberals were willing to
keep the Hapsburg monarch but wanted
their own legislature
• March laws provided for Hungarian
independence.
• Austrians invade, Hungarian armies
drove within sight of Vienna.
• Slavic minorities resisted Magyar
invasion and Hungarian army withdrew
• Austrian and Russian armies defeated
Hungarian army.
• Hungary would have to wait until 1866
for autonomy
Hungary,
1848
Louis Kossuth
Tsar Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855)
• He raised an army
of 400,000 in
response to a
request from
Franz Joseph.
– 140,000 put down
the Hungarian
revolt.
Upheaval in the Austrian Empire
In Bohemia, the Czechs began to demand their own
government as well
Emperor Ferdinand I had made concessions but
waited for chance to take back control
Conservative were please with division, as in the German
states, between moderates and radicals
Conservative were heartened when a Czech revolt was
put down in Prague
Viennese rebels were later crushed as well
J
• Prague Conference
developed notion of
Austroslavism: constitution
and autonomy within
Habsburg empire.
• Pan-Slav Congress failed to
unite Slavic peoples in the
empire.
• Austrian military ultimately
attacked Prague and
occupied Bohemia and
crushed rebellion.
Bohemia, 1848
The Aftermath: Democrats Swept Out of Europe
Why did the 1848 Revolutions Fail?
• They failed to attract popular support from the working classes.
• The middle classes led these revolutions, but as they turned
radical, the middle class held back.
• Nationalism divided more than united.
• Where revolutions were successful, the Old Guard was left in
place and they turned against the revolutionaries.
• Some gains lasted [abolition of serfdom, etc.]
• BUT, in the long term, most liberal gains would be solidified by
the end of the 19c:
– The unification of Germany and Italy.
– The collapse of the Hapsburg Empire at the end of World War
I.
The Bottom Line
• Resulted in end of serfdom in Austria and Germany,
universal male suffrage in France, parliaments
established in German states (although controlled by
princes & aristocrats), stimulated unification impulse in
Prussia and Sardinia-Piedmont.
• It looked like the Conservative forces had triumphed.
• BUT…
– Things had changed forever.
– Economic/social problems continued to be constant
challenges to the ruling order.
– Conservatives would have to make concessions in order to
stay in power.
– Many of the limited Liberal achievements remained
permanent.