Transcript Turks and Mongols. Pre-Ottoman Asia Minor and the Balkans

Emergence and Development of
Balkan Nationalism
Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism
and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman
Empire-Class 4
Anton Minkov
Outline
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Early Balkan National Awareness
Greece
Serbia
Bulgaria
The Macedonian Question
Development of Albanian nationalism
The Balkan wars
Anton Minkov
Early National Awareness among Balkan
peoples
• The Ottoman-Habsburg military border system
– The Croats and the Illyrian Movement
• 1699, Slavonia-Voyvodina border zone established
– Settled predominantly by Serbs who fled the Ottoman empire
– Autonomy of the Serbian Orthodox church – 1713
– Border Serbs religious autonomy played well with their former
Ottoman millet traditions and reinforced the old millet sense of
group identity
– Exposure to emerging national and ethnic concepts
– Linking of autonomous church organization with growing sense
of ethnic awareness
– Orthodox church connection with Russia - patronage
– 1794, first Serbian modern history – Jovan Rajic
– Dositei Obradovic – created exclusively Serbian literary language
(artificial), fought against Church domination in cultural life
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Early National Awareness in the Ottoman
Balkans
• No conditions for evolution similar to Western Europe
– No privileged zimmi noble class with claims to “nation” status
– No parallel to Western Europe’s political, intellectual and
cultural development of Balkan zimmi urban middle class
– No political partnership with Ottoman sultans
– No secular education
• Romantic ethno-national awareness – foreign import
• Sense of group belonging beyond the local in the millet
• Centuries of millet existence established religion as the
Ottoman zimmis’ primary criterion for group identity
• Ottomans build a political partnership with the
ecclesiastical millet leaders and not the urban middle
class
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Greek ethnic awareness
• Phanariote Greeks
– Controlled the Orthodox millet hierarchy
– Positioned to serve as the privileged elite in shaping group
identities
– Had a sense of continuity with their pre-Ottoman, Byzantine
past that no other group possessed
• By the middle of 18th c. Greek merchant colonies operate
in Central European trade centers, Mediterranean and
Russian Black Sea commercial ports
• Contacts with Europe brought about a split
– Those adhering to preserving millet leadership and dominance
within the Ottoman Empire
– Those espousing ethno-national political aspiration, rejecting
Ottoman sovereignty – Evgenious Voulgaris of Corfu
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• Revolutionary activity under the influence of France
– 1814, Society of Friends in Odessa
– Secret revolutionary societies in Greek colonies in Europe
• Sought support from Russia
– John Capodistrias – Russia’s foreign minister
• Traditional Phanariot leadership rejected revolutionary
aspects of nationalism, embraced cultural-linguistic ones
• Enforced their existing sense of Greek cultural
superiority
– However, led to deeply rooted anti-Greek ethnic reaction
– Evolved into outright national hostility once ethno-national
concept espoused
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Independent Greece
• 18th c., Greek communities established outside the
Ottoman Empire, secular schools opened, nationalism
• Ottoman Greek society divided between Phanariotes and
peasants, traditionalists and secularists
• Secularists supported by the peasants – receptive to
ethno-national revolutionary ideas
• After 1817, Society of Friends aimed at national
revolution and creation of independent Greek state
– Initial support from Russia (Orthodox cultural affinity)
• 1821, Ottomans destructed in Anatolia, Ali Pasha of
Ioannina, radicals call for action – Alexander Ypsilantis
– Ypsilantis invades Moldova, Russian refuses support, defeated
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• Nevertheless, rebellion in Peloponnese
– Initially, nothing more than a widespread bandit movement
– Many uncoordinated, mutually antagonistic leaders, no concept
of national ideas
• 1825, Ottomans called in Egyptian troops
– strong reaction in Europe
• Mahmud continues to suppress the rebellion, Russia
declares war
• 1829, the treaty of Edirne – Russia withdraws from the
Balkans, occupies Romanian Principalities
• 1830, the London Protocol – independent Greek
monarchical state under the protection of the Powers
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Very small territory, rejected by the Greeks
Greek Ottoman subjects lost privileged status
John Capodistrias proclaimed Greek republic – assassinated
The Great Powers impose foreign monarchs – Prince Otto
Nationalist agenda overriding factor in Greek affairs, the “Great
Idea”
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Ottoman Serbs
• Two centuries of almost separate millet status under the
Ohrid and Pec Patriarchates
– Serbian speaking clerics – modicum of independent
representative administration, direct diplomatic relations
– 1766-67, patriarchates eliminated
• Ethnic awareness disseminated to the Ottoman Serbs by
Habsburg border Serbs and through the monasteries in
Mount Athos
• 1804, uprising of Ottoman Serbs
• 1814, collection of Serbian folk songs and tales - Vuk
Karadzic
• By 1824, Serbian literary language based on vernacular
– Based on Karadzic’s Herzegovinian dialect – bridge between
Serbian and Croatian, thus, modern Serbo-Croatian language
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Serbia
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18th c., Serb-inhabited Ottoman regions – battlegrounds
Formation of predominantly Serb province of Belgrade
1718-39, Habsburg occupation, self-government
Selim III, initially permitted self-government to fight the
ayans (Pazvanoglu)
• Napoleonic wars, reversal – 1798, many Serb leaders
executed, the Janissaries reinstalled in Belgrade
• 1802, Karageorge joins sipahi uprising against the
Janissaries
• 1804, Serbian uprising – janissaries confined to Belgrade
– Goal – to overthrow oppressive Janissary regime and restore
stable provincial administration
– Habsburg border Serbs transformed it into a struggle for
independence, asked Russia for help - refused
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• 1806, Karageorge takes Belgrade, Selim allies with
Napoleon, Russia and Britain declare war
• 1807, Karageorge controls all fortresses, signs treaty with
Russia, rebellion becomes tied to Great Powers
• 1812, Russia signs treaty with France, Serbs abandoned
• 1813, Ottomans reoccupy all rebellion Serb territory
• 1815, uprising by Milosh Obrenovich
– diplomatic skills – bribed Ottoman officials
• 1816, Mahmud II recognized virtually autonomous
Serbian province
• 1828, Treaty of Edirne, Serbia recognized as autonomous
principality, Milosh as hereditary prince
• 1830, formal Ottoman recognition; 1860, independence
• Serbian state
– autocratic rule, no infrastructure, no difference in the life of
peasants, only the government acquired Serbian ethnic identity
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Bulgarians
• Same sociopolitical fate as the Serbs – membership in the Orthodox
millet, controlled by Greeks
• Lack of traditional native leadership class
• Additional challenges
– At the very heart of the Ottoman Balkans – far from borders
– on the way of all important military, administrative and communication
lines, Proximity to Ottoman capital
– Cut off from the world outside the Ottoman Empire
• Patriarchate of Ohrid preserves the title “Bulgarian”
– However, all high clerics Greeks – anti-Greek sentiment
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Thus, grassroots of Bulgarian ethnic self-awareness
17th c. - new Bulgarian literary language
1762, the monk Paisii - modern Bulgarian history
Sofronii Vratchanski – conducting literary and nationalist activities
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The impact of Tanzimat on the Balkans
• Hatti Humayun of 1856 – beginning of direct impact
• Millet reorganization – only the original three
– 1857, Abdulmecid ordered general council of the Orthodox
church – took place in 1860-62
• Rapid emergence of Bulgarian national movement
– 1860, Bulgarian merchants declared that they would not
recognize the authority of the Greek patriarch-name substitution
– Effectively the Bulgarian middle class demanded that the sultan
recognize a new millet – on ethnic basis
– Otherwise the middle class satisfied with new found prosperity
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The “Bulgarian Church question”
• Nationalist dispute – no doctrinal positions involved
– Bulgarians - a church which would define, in millet terms, the
geographical extend of Bulgarian ethno-national territory
– Greeks – threat to Hellenism and the future of enlarged Greece
• Bulgarians involved French Catholic and American
Protestant missionaries
– To play on Russia’s Orthodox and imperialist fears
• 1870, count Ignatiev convinced the sultan – Abdulaziz to
recognize independent Bulgarian church over Bulgaria,
Thrace, Macedonia (option to enlarge)
• Greek Patriarchate declared schism within Orthodoxy
• 1872, first Bulgarian bishop elected
• Revolutionary nationalists sought complete
independence
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The Balkan crisis of 1875-76
• The Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion
– Non-Muslim peasants against Muslim landowner beys
– Aided by Russian and Habsburgs but avoided intervention
• 1876, Serbia declares war and invades Bosnia, Montenegro
invades Herzegovina
• Serbs defeated, Ottoman forces invade Serbia
• Russian ultimatum for ceasefire
– Agreement between Russia and Austria to divide the Balkans
• Bulgarian uprising of 1876
– Series of poorly conceived, unsupported uprisings in the 1850s
– Spring of 1876 uprising to take advantage of situation in BosniaHerzegovina
– Crushed within a month by irregulars (bashibozuks)
– Irregulars inflicted destruction and pillage at Bulgarian villages
– As many as 15,000 casualties
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• Ottoman massacres in Bulgarian uprising
– Britain succumbs to popular pressure, withdraws Ottoman
support
• The Istanbul Conference of 1876
– United autonomous Bosnia-Herzegovina
– Two autonomous Bulgarian provinces
– Montenegro keeps war gains, Serbia regains its prewar borders
• Abdulhamid rejects conference terms, proclaims
constitution
– The Great Powers forced to shelve plans to impose solution
• 1977, the Budapest Convention
– Russia secures Austria’s neutrality in case of conflict with the
Ottomans in return for right to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina
• March 1877, London convention– rejected by
Abdulhamid
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Bulgarian independence
• April 1877, Russia declares war, signs treaty with Romania
– Free passage through Romania for recognition of independence
• Russians stopped at the strategic fortress of Pleven
• Advance resumed in January 1878
– Russian troops, Bulgarian volunteers decimate Muslim population
– 260,000 Muslims perished, 500,000 fled
• February, Russians in sight of Istanbul, Britain
demonstration of power
• The Treaty of San Stefano
– Serbia, Montenegro, Romania granted complete independence
– Russia receives territories in eastern Anatolia
– Creation of autonomous Bulgarian principality – the single largest
Balkan state so far (intended as a Russian puppet)
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The Berlin Treaty
• All Great Powers and Balkan states rejected San Stefano’s
terms
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Western European powers - virtual Russian control of the Straits
Romania – Russian annexation of Bessarabia
Serbia and Montenegro–not all territories occupied during the war
Greece – left out, Bulgaria received Macedonia
• June 1878, Berlin Treaty
– only Great Powers’ interests considered, Balkan states, Ottomans
ignored
– Independence of Sebia, Montenegro, Romania recognized
– Russia retains Eastern Anatolia and Bessarabia
– Greece actually lost territory (Cyprus handed to Britain)
– Bosnia-Herzegovina + sanjak of Novi Pazar to Austria
– Bulgaria sliced into four peaces
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Effects of the Berlin Treaty
• “Old diplomacy" - ill-suited for dealing with crises in the
Balkans
– Unable to deal with mass movements and secret activities
– expected small states to obey orders, but the new Balkan
governments often refused
– even if they agreed, state apparatus too weak to overcome
popular nationalism and secret conspiracies
• Western European imposed terms at Berlin – the
fundamental motivation for the Balkans subsequent
divisive events
– Bulgaria- stubborn resolution to win back what was lost
– Serbia – saw Bulgaria as rival in respect to Macedonia
– Greece – national ambitions neglected, resolved every effort to
win their “rightful” borders in the north
• Radicalized Balkan nationalism
• Berlin Treaty – the first step to the World War I
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The nature of Balkan nationalism
• Large multiethnic empire
– Ethnically foreign masters
– Cultural traditions did not include democracy
– Western European political culture meant national liberation
• Millet traditions
– Religious affiliation—crucial component of ethnic identity
– The Ottoman empire perceived as completely alien
• Ottoman Islamic society—the enemy par excellence
– Dealings no between parties with common civilizational values,
atrocities
• Berlin - nation-state status but no national unification
– Emotionally charged atmosphere – radicalization of nationalism
– Militant ethnonational nation-state unification approach
• Political structure, economy, education – to enhance military
capabilities
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The “Macedonian Question”
• Includes the districts of Thessaloniki, Bitola, Kossovo
• Ethnic composition – “ethnological salad”
“The Christian population of this Pashalic is composed of four
different races who all profess the Greek Orthodox faith;... the
Bulgarians... the Wallachs... the Albanians... and the Greeks”
Charles Calvert, British Consul in Monastir, 1867
– periphery– Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, Vlachs, Jews
– Core regions – Slavic speaking, illiterate, no ethnic identification
• Balkan nationalism- ignored the difference between a
nation, an ethnic group, and race
– Macedonia – not a melting pot, it is only one group to form the
majority of the population
– tracing the national identity of the Slavic-speaking group –the
issue of paramount importance
– definition of that identity would justify irredentist claims
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The Claims
• Bulgaria
– Medieval Slavs in Macedonia were absorbed by the Bulgarians
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Integral part of medieval Bulgaria
Strong linguistic affinity
The seat of the first independent Bulgarian Patriarchate
The birthplace of Bulgarian Cyrillic literary language
– Despite allegiance to the Greek dominated Patriarchate, Slavspeaking Macedonians were a separate Bulgarian ethnic group
• Greece
– Ancient Macedonians were ethnic Greeks
– Medieval Slavs and Bulgarians were culturally converted to
Byzantine Hellenism and were ethnically assimilated
– Considering Slavic-speaking Macedonians loyalty to the
Patriarch, they were ethnically Greeks beyond doubt
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• Serbia
– Some common folk-culture traditions, language affinity
– Serbs dominated Macedonia after the Bulgarians in the 14th
century; thus, they could not have been assimilated by the latter
– Macedonian Slavs were not identified as Bulgarians until the mid
19th century
• Romania
– Claimed Latin-speaking semi-nomadic Vlachs as Romanians
– Goal - to leverage claim in other territorial disputes - Dobrudja
• Albania
– Albanian-speaking population
– Joined the clashes in Macedonia opposing both the Ottomans
and the other nationalist groups
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The Bulgarian Exarchate and escalation of
Balkan nationalism
• Right to expand religious jurisdiction by vote of
population
– Bulgarian national revival extends to Macedonia
– Macedonian intellectuals join Bulgarian national movement
– Orthodox Macedonians express desire to join the Exarchate
• Clashes between pro-Exarchates and pro-Patriarchates
• Victory for the Exarchate
• 1885-6, Bulgarian unification, Serbs defeated, enter into
nationalist propaganda in Macedonia
– Increase terror on Macedonian Slavs, who immigrate to Bulgaria
– Émigrés become powerful political factor in Bulgarian politics,
demand state intervention in Macedonia
• 1893, beginning of Macedonian national movement
– IMRO – first European political terrorist organization
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The Illinden Uprising
• The fundamental factor of the “Macedonian question” –
Ottoman possession still continued
• 1903, IMRO stages uprising
– Ill prepared, Bulgaria not ready for war
– Crushed with usual violence by the Ottomans for three months
• Great Power enact reform program
– Foreign inspectors attached to Ottoman administration
– Ottoman Macedonian gendarmerie placed under foreign
command
– Judicial reorganization, financial assistance for refugees
– Future administrative reform along ethnic lines
• Failure of Ottoman reforms
– For too many players, reform required too much work. As a
result, revolution remained the driving force in Balkan affairs
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Rise of Albanian nationalism
• Last to adopt national ideas
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Religious diversity – 70% Muslim, 20% Orthodox, 10% Catholic
Religious tolerance – the Bektashi order
Extensive local autonomy, positions open for all faiths
the backbone of Ottoman European forces
Linguistic split between North and South
Schools – Turkish in Muslim and Greek in Orthodox
Traditional clan and tribal identities – difficult ground for
nationalism
– Nationalist activities of Albanians in Italy of little impact
• 1878, Albanian-populated land given to new Balkan
states
– the Albanian League – Abdul Frasheri
– 1908, Latin based Albanian alphabet, secular schools
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The effects of the Young Turks’ Revolution
• Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina
– Blow to Serbian nationalism (Yugoslavism)
• Bulgaria declares complete independence
• Ottoman Crete declares unification with Greece
• Young Turks –centralization and Turkish hegemony
– counter the spirit of the constitution
– Albanian national development intensifies
– National awakening among Armenians and Arabs
• Young Turks’ repressive nationalist policies permitted to
overcome Balkan states’ mutual national animosities and
form an anti-ottoman military alliance
• Resulted of loss of most of Ottoman Balkan possessions
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The Balkan wars 1912-13
• 1911, Ottomans in war with Italy over Tripoli
• 1912, treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia
– Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Kossovo, northern Macedonia to Serbia
– Western Trace to Bulgaria, bulk of Macedonia to be autonomous
• 1912, Greek-Bulgarian military alliance – no territorial
issues defined
• Balkan League formation - strategy on the part of the
underdogs – Greece and Serbia- in the Macedonian
question to eliminate the advantages of Bulgaria
• May 1912, Albanians rebel against Young Turks policies
• Montenegro joins the alliance – first declares war
• Great Powers alliance system
– difficult to take effective action without first consulting allies and
enemies and agree on the acceptable action
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First Balkan war
• Fought to decide Macedonia’s faith
• Bulgarians face the main Ottoman army in Thrace
– Take Edirne after a long siege, stopped before Istanbul
• Greeks and Serbians face weak Ottoman troops in
Macedonia
– Greece occupies Thessaloniki and southern Macedonia
– Serbia takes Kossovo and 2/3 of Macedonia
– Montenegro invades Albania
• May 1913, Treaty of London
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Autonomous Albania- includes parts originally promised to Serbia
Serbia takes more of Macedonia in compensation
Bulgaria and Greece quarrel over Thessaloniki
Romania demands Bulgarian piece of Dobrudja
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Second Balkan war
• June 1913, Serbia and Greece sign anti-Bulgarian
alliance to defend their newly acquired territories
• Bulgarian nationalist emotions result in assault on
Serbian and Greek positions in Macedonia
• Romania, Montenegro and Ottomans join Serbia and
Greece
• Bulgaria striped from all war gains
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Ottomans retake eastern Thrace and Edirne
Romania takes Dobrudja
Western Thrace and Kavala given to Greece
Macedonia divided between Greece and Serbia
• Serbians gain overconfident sense of nationalism
– Intensify nationalist activities in Bosnia-Herzegovina leading to
WWI
Anton Minkov