Transcript Bourgeoisie - Professor Cat

Modern Europe II
Unit 3 - Industrial Revolution and Reform, 1815-1848
The Industrial Revolution
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Industrial Revolution was one of the great revolutions of
mankind
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First being the Neolithic (agricultural) revolution
Last of Great Revolutions that shaped modern Europe
Importance
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Radically changed the methods of production
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Before, humans were limited to human and animal power
Now, humans were able to harness the power of machines
Able to mass produce goods
Leads to a changes in lifestyles (e.g., workplaces and free time)
Supported Western expansion into other countries
The Industrial Revolution
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Began in Britain around 1750
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Causes go back to the Glorious Revolution (1688)
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By 1830, it had spread to the continent
Wealthy landowners took control of Parliament
From this point until 1832, this “squirearchy” was in control
Their focus was to make more money
How do landowners make more money?
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Need to increase the production of the land that they had
Done by increasing crop yields and raising fatter sheep and
cattle
The question became “how to do it?”
Dutch Agricultural Revolution
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Dutch Agricultural Revolution (c. 1650)
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How?
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Dutch population was increasing too rapidly for food supplies
to keep up with
In Amsterdam alone, the population shot up from 30,000 to
200,000 over the course of the century
Needed to drastically increase agricultural production
Focused their efforts on increasing crop yields
Enclosing the fields, raising new crops, and crop rotation
Heavy fertilization using manure
They also did not have serfdom so the peasantry could
move where necessary
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Protests Against Enclosure
Agricultural Revolution in Britain
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British wanted to adopt many of the Dutch techniques
Biggest controversy: enclosure
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Sectioning off of land by the use of a fence, wall, or hedge
Old medieval laws had allowed peasants to use the open fields
to graze their own animals
During the early Tudor dynasty, there were attempts by the
landowners to enclose their lands
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This was mainly to allow them to graze sheep as the cost of wool was
skyrocketing at the time
Peasants revolted and monarchy took the side of the peasantry
Agricultural Revolution in Britain
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With the squirearchy, enclosure was going to be pushed
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Enclosure hurt the small landowner and farmer
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Parliament passed hundreds of enclosure acts
By 1832, most of the land in England was enclosed
No longer had a place to graze their animals
Many were forced to sell what land they had
Enclosure may have been beneficial to the landless
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Would be hired on as farmhands with wages
There was also an increase in tenant farmers
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Charles “Turnip”
Townshend
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(1674-1738)
Agricultural Revolution in Britain
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Another method adopted was crop rotation
Charles “Turnip” Townshend (1674-1738)
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Introduced the four-field crop rotation used in the Netherlands
Included planting wheat, barley, turnips, and clover in the fields
Introduced turnips as a major crop in England
Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
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He invented the seed drill
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This meant less waste and more crop growth
He also encouraged the use of horses for plowing
Innovations were also made to improve the raising of
domesticated stock like cattle and sheep
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Tull’s Seed Driller
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(c. 1752)
Effects of the Agricultural Revolution
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Short term effects
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From 1700 to 1760, bountiful crops
Better quality of life for most British
Could spend income on things other than food
More productive land meant less labor required to cultivate
the same amount of food
Long term effect:
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Less people were involved in agriculture
By 1870, England produces 300% more than in 1700
Larger percentage is free to engage in industrial work
Creates a new type of economy that was impossible in a purely
agricultural economy
Why Britain?
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Why did the Industrial Revolution start in Britain?
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Had a stable government
There were numerous economic freedoms
Tremendous amount of available capital
Had a well developed central banking system
Mobile population not tied to the land
Easy access to water
Rich with coal and iron ore
Had plenty of colonies and control of the seas
Damp climate
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Flatford Mill (c. 1816)
Industrialism in Britain
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The Revolution was actually a series of processes based
on demand
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After the Agricultural Revolution, focus became making
even greater profits
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One invention lead to another
This lead to new situations which call for even more changes
Best way to do so was to increase the speed of production
More goods could be made to meet the worldwide demand
First modern factories were created in 1770s and 1780s
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Made for cotton textile industry
This was where the greatest demand occurred
Industrialism in Britain
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Industrial Revolution was a process
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The textile industry was the first affected
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New inventions led to new challenges which led to even more
inventions
Growth of this industry was based on demand
As production increased, it led to the need for both power and
iron
Led to movement of both industry and population to the
northern England
Investment in industries
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Desire for increasing profit led to new methods and inventions
First started by merchant capitalists
Britain could afford industrialization
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The Spinning Mule
The Cotton Industry
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Cotton industry was first affected
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Growing demand for cotton goods
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Britain tried to compete with Asia for cotton goods
British industries could not keep up with demands
The whole process—spinning, weaving, and printing—was
done by hand
Need led to improve the processing of cotton goods
Two inventions helped to benefit the cottage industry
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Fly Shuttle (1733) allowed one person to weave cloth instead
of two
Spinning Jenny (c. 1764) increased the production of yarn
The Cotton Industry
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More inventions allowed for mass production
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Water Frame (1769) allowed for not only the spinning of
multiple threads, but was powered by water instead of humans
Spinning Mule (1779) combined the spinning Jenny and the
water frame and produced high quality thin yarns
Power Loom (1785) changed the design of the water frame by
allowing it to be powered by steam engine instead of water
Between 1770 and 1790, production of yarn increased ten
fold
Now there was an increased demand for cotton
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Cotton picking and removal of seeds were all done by hand
The Cotton Industry
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Cotton Gin (1793)
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Invented by Eli Whitney
Automatically removed the seeds from the cotton
Processing of cotton was sped up to meet the demand
Birth of Cotton Mills
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Moving equipment into large buildings allowed cotton yarn
could be massed produced
From 1813 to 1850, number of power looms increased from
2,400 to over 250,000
Hand-loom weavers dropped from 250,000 in 1820 to only
3,000 in 1860
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1830s British Cotton Mill with a Power Loom
The Power Crisis
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The power crisis began around 1700
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Government realized that the country was running out of its
lumber supply
Impacted every aspect of life
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No lumber meant no charcoal which meant no smelting of iron
Many began turning to coal for a power source
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People had already been using coal for heating since 1700 in
London
Coal was very hard and expensive to extract
Did not stop demand because coal was the only viable source
There was the need to dig deeper mines and find ways of
pumping the water out of the mines
The Steam Engine
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Newcomen Steam Engine (1712)
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Built by Thomas Newcomen
An “atmospheric engine” designed to run a more efficient
water pump
It consumed too much fuel for the amount of power it was
producing
Watt Steam Engine (1775)
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Invented by James Watt
First true steam engine
It had a rotary engine that could turn a shaft
This meant that it could run machinery as well
The Steam Engine
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Watt began selling the engine to the textile industry
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Many mills adopted the steam engine as a power source
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By 1850, 7/8’s of the power for the cotton industry came from
the steam engine
This had a huge impact on production of cotton
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Up until this point, the textile industry was limited to handlooms and water-powered looms
Used this technology to improve the output of textiles
In 1760, Britain produced 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton
By 1840, this skyrocketed to 366 million pounds
Price of cotton goods dropped to 1/20th their value
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Asia could not compete with Britain in cotton
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Puddling
furnace
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(c. 1881)
The Iron Industry
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The iron industry was also affected
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“Puddling”
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In 1740, over 17,000 tons of iron were produced in Britain
In 1840, skyrocketed to over 3 million tons
The center of the iron industry was Manchester
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Developed in the 170s to make clean iron
This method was later used to create modern steel
Led to a major boom in the iron industry
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Britain stilled used old medieval style methods of processing iron
that used charcoal
The coal and iron mines were located nearby along with a ready
water supply
Steel became a major component in construction and industry
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Illustration of the 1804 Pen-y-Darren Locomotive
Revolution of Transportation
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Steam engine led to advancements in the transportation
industry
In order to make profits, one had to get goods from one
place to another more cheaply and quickly
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While waterways were good, there was a demand for an even
more effective method of transportation
With this, there is the development of the railway
Railways had been around since 1500
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They were first developed for use in mines throughout
Germany
The idea was later adapted to British coal mines around 1600
Revolution of Transportation
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Pen-y-Darren Locomotive (1804)
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For the next few decades, the steam engine was improved
upon
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First steam-powered locomotive
For just over four hours, it carried ten tons of iron on five
wagons with 70 men at an average speed of close to 5 mph
Numerous inventors worked on ways to carry larger loads
faster over longer distances
The Rocket (1830)
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Built by George Stephenson
Included the first public rail line
It traveled 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester at 16mph
Revolution of Transportation
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By 1840, Britain had almost 2,000 miles of railroads
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Changed not only the face of Britain but it was also key
to the expansion of the Industrial Revolution
Many investors put money into railway industry
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By 1850, that was up to 6,000 miles with trains that reached
speeds of 50mph
Railroad companies were able to hire a lot of peasants and
laborers, creating new jobs
Reduced the costs in shipping
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Lower overall cost of manufacturing and thus lower prices
Increase in demand created more jobs and factories
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Joseph de Maistre
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(1753-1821)
Advent of the “Isms”
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Age of “Isms” (1815-1848)
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Rise of new new doctrines and movements
Reflected changes brought about by the French Revolution and
the Industrial Revolution
Conservativism
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Reactionary movement to protect the old school institutions
Reaction against Revolutionary ideals
Strongest in Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) against violent overthrow of
government
Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) believed that only a monarch
who had absolute control could bring about “order in society”
Advent of the “Isms”
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Liberalism
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Origins:
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Came from the middle and professional classes
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Term first used in Spain by anti-Bonapartists
Later adopted by French anti-monarchists after 1814
In Britain, ideas were adopted by the Whig party
They believed in self-government and wanted representative
governments
They also promoted laissez-faire styled economics
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
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On Liberty (1859) pushed the concept of moral and economic
freedoms from the state
His ideas include freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, freedom in
morality, and freedom of assembly
Advent of the “Isms”
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Radicalism
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Had its roots in Great Britain with the Philosophical Radicals
They wanted to redo all of government
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This included granting the right to vote and participation in
government to all free men
Many wanted the abolition of the monarchy as well
Republicanism
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Form of radicalism found on the continent
Wanted to reconstruct the ideals of the Republic without the
Reign of Terror
Many of its followers came from the intelligentsia
They embraced the ideas of the radicals
Advent of the “Isms”
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Early Socialists (pre-1848)
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Believed that the economic system was aimless and unjust
Economic power should be in the hands of the workers and
not the owners
Included communal ownership of industry, end of laissez-faire
economics, and higher wages
Wanted a more equal and fair distribution of wealth
throughout society
Robert Owen set up a cooperative in New Lanark, Britain
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
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Believed industrial leaders should be put in positions of authority
Population should be educated so it could evolve
Advent of the “Isms”
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Feminism
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Shared similar ideas with the liberals and radicals
Main concern was to expand the rights of women
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Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
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Wanted more equality in private life (e.g., not losing property when
married)
Wanted the right to vote and receive the same civil rights as men
This stated that women had the same innate capacity for reason and
self-government as men
Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality
Saint Simonian Movement
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Called for women to be well-educated to raise intelligent and
competent children
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Mary Wollstonecraft
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(1759-1797)
Nationalism
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Started as cultural nationalism but eventually turned to
politics
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Nationalism was strongest in disorganized and divided
countries
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Included Italy, Germany, Poland, and Austria
Was pushed by the intelligentsia
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Wanted the creation of either a separate nation or a unified
one
Played on Herder’s idea of Volksgeist
Early nationalist movements met in secret
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They called for the overthrow of government
Led to the creation of many secret societies, especially in Italy
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Giuseppe Mazzini
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(1805-1872)
Italian Nationalism
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Carbonari (“Charcoal Burners”)
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Apophasimenes
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Secret society organized in Naples during Napoleon’s reign
Pushed to get a constitution in Naples in 1820
Called for the unification of Italy through popular uprising
La Giovine Italia (Young Italy)
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Formed by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831
Wanted to create an independent and unified Italy out of the
states occupied by Austria
In 1834, Mazzini unsuccessfully led an uprising against the
Kingdom of Sardinia
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Georg Wilhelm
Frederick Hegel
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(1770-1831)
German Nationalism
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Germans had a national culture but not a unified state
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Became another hotspot for nationalism
Georg Wilhelm Frederick Hegel (1770-1831)
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Believed that a people must possess a powerful and free state
if they are to enjoy things such as freedom or order
“Universal Spirit” – Thesis, antithesis, and synthesis
Non-unified state of Germany (the thesis) would create a
unification movement (the antithesis)
The synthesis would become a unified Germany
Helped to push the study of history to find the “universal
spirit”
Part of the growing nationalism movement and tied in with
Hegel’s work was the development of modern history
German Nationalism
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Grimm Brothers - Grimm’s Fairy Tales (1812)
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Friedrich List (1789-1846)
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Traveled throughout Germany collecting different folktales
Part of this was to find the Volk of the German people
Believed that each country had to develop its own economic
scheme based on its history
Not every country can use the same economic system
Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886)
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Reflected the nationalistic spirit found in Germany
A common theme was the greatness of all the European
countries and their ability to coexist
Called for Germans to develop their own sense of identity to
kept the greatness of Europe alive
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Leopold von Ranke
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(1795-1886)
Nationalism in Eastern Europe
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In Poland, nationalism was focused on the recreation of
the Polish state
In the rest of eastern Europe, many different nationalistic
movements broke out
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Most of them were based more on cultural nationalism than
political
Their own culture was unique and should be preserved
Rise of Magyar nationalism in the Austrian empire
The Slavic Revival in eastern Europe and Russia which led later
to the Pan-Slavic movement
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Alexander I
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(1777-1825)
Reaction and Restoration: 1815-1830
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After 1815, many powers wanted to prevent another
Revolution and Napoleon from happening again
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Conservatives had the power in many governments
They wanted to prevent any liberalism from tainting them
Big Four powers wanted to keep the old school type of politics
Alexander I did make some moderate changes (e.g.,
constitutions and representative governments)
Many on the left wing felt that these changes were not enough
and called for more liberal reforms
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Louis XVIII
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(1815-1824)
Restoration in France
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Post-1815 France was conservative and reactionary
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“White Terror”
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Rise of the ultra-royalists
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Wanted to bring back the grandeur of the Old Regime
Against any type of limited monarchy, including a constitutional one
Louis XVIII (1814-1824)
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Broke out in France against Republicans, Protestants, and Bonapartists
Massacres of Protestants occurred in Marseilles and Toulouse in 1815
He tried to keep the government moderate
Included the hiring of moderate advisors and councilors
Legislative bodies were ultra-royalists
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Saw Louis as being too moderate
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Charles X
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(1824-1830)
Reaction in France
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Charles X (1824-1830)
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Brother of Louis XVIII
He wanted to bring back the Old Regime in all of its glory
Conservative policies:
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Anti-Sacrilege Act (1824)
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Prohibited any type of sacrilege against the host
The punishments included perpetual forced labor up to mutilation and
beheading
Granted indemnities to all of the aristocracy who had lost land
during the Revolution
Wanted the Catholic Church to take greater control of the
educational system
Reaction in France
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Liberals wanted Charles to hire more moderate ministers
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They would be answerable to the legislature
In 1829, he appointed the ultra-conservative Jules Armand de
Polignac as his chief minister
Chamber of Deputies protested this
July Ordinances (July 1830)
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It dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and called for new
elections
The bourgeoisie were prohibited from running for office
Created a new Council of State with many ultra-royalists as
ministers
It suspended freedom of the press
Leads to the July Revolution
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George IV of Britain
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Prince Regent (1811-1820)
King (1820-1830)
Reaction in Britain
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Tory Control
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Corn Law of 1815
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In 1815, the government was in the hands of the large
landowners
At the time, Britain faced severe economic problems
Parliament placed a very high tariff on imported grain
Good for large landowners because the price of grain rose
Bad for the working class who now could barely afford food
Spa Fields Riots (December 9, 1816)
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Radicals protested against the Corn Laws and the Tory rule
Some looted gunshop in order to seize the Tower of London
Troops were brought in to stop the crowd
Reaction in Britain
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Attack on the Prince Regent (January 28, 1817)
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His carriage was attacked after he left the opening of
Parliament
The windows were smashed in
Some thought a revolution was about to take place
Gag Acts of 1817
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Parliament suspended Habeas Corpus
Banned all seditious meetings
Ordered the arrest of all writers and printers of seditious
material
Was used by industry owners to place spies in their factories
Reaction in Britain
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Peterloo Massacre (August 16, 1819)
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Crowd of 60,000 protested against the high grain prices at St.
Peter’s Field in Manchester
Demanded parliamentary reform as well
Military was called in to put down the protest
11 people were killed with over 400 wounded
Six Acts (1819)
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Passed in response to growing protests
Allowed for the search and seizure of weapons
Prevented meetings of more than 50 people not for “church or
state” affairs
Allowed for detainment in a penal colony for those publishing
seditious material
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Francis I of Austria
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(1792-1835)
Reaction in Austria
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Francis I of Austria (1792-1835)
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Was strongly against any form of radicalism
Most policies were directed by Metternich
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Pushed for conservatism under pressure from Francis
Was not willing to work with liberals or nationals
Believed that the old system was necessary to keep Austria
functioning
Anything else would destroy it
Played a key role in maintaining the balance of power in Europe
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Frederick
William III
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(1797-1840)
Reaction in Germany
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Reaction to the Germanic Federation
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Many Germans were unsatisfied and instead called for a unified
Germany
First turned to Prussia for help as it originally implemented
numerous reforms
Frederick William III (1797-1840)
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After 1815 became much more reactionary
Refused the creation of a legislative assembly or a
representative government
Had little interest in creating a unified Germany
Reaction in Germany
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Burschenschaften
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Liberal students began organizing into these student societies
First one was created in June 1815 at the University of Jena
Their main purpose was to create a unified Germany
Motto: “Honor, Liberty, Fatherland”
Wartburg Festival (October 18, 1817)
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Groups of Burschenschaften met in the city of Wartburg to
celebrate the 300th anniversary of Luther’s 95 Theses
Many students burned books by reactionary authors
Was peaceful but caused uneasiness with many governments
Reaction in Germany
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Assassination of August von Kotzebue (March 23, 1819)
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Metternich could no longer stand by and do nothing
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Was a reactionary writer
Assassin was theology student, Karl Ludwig Sand
Sand stated Kotzebue was an enemy of the German state
He called together a conference of the main German states
Carlsbad Decrees (September 1819)
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They were later passed by the legislative body (Bund)
Dissolved the Burschenscaften and other student groups
Censored all printed material
Effectively repressed the liberal movement in the German
states
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Alexander I
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(1801-1825)
Reaction in Russia
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Alexander I (1801-1825)
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After 1815 started following more conservative policy
Liberals were repressed inside of Russia
Formation of secret societies
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Northern Union of Salvation
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Included veterans of the war against France
Called for a constitutional monarchy and giving land to peasants
On December 1, 1825, Tsar Alexander I died
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His brother, Constantine, was to ascend to the throne
But he had abdicated a few days later in favor of his brother
Nikolai
Reaction in Russia
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Northern Union told the troops not to swear an oath of
allegiance to Nikolai
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They believed that Constantine would be more open to
reform
The revolt was quickly put down
Nikolai I (1825-1855)
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Instituted reactionary policies against the liberals
Set up the political police known as the Third Section
They were allowed to arrest and deport anyone they thought
was suspicious or dangerous to the state of Russia
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Nicolas I
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(1825-1855)
Congress System
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After 1815, the Big Four powers wanted to maintain their
conservative governments
Congress System
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Also known as the “Concert of Europe”
Designed to keep the balance of power and to maintain the
ideals of conservatism
“Holy Alliance”
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
Powers were held together by their faith
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (Fall 1818) focused on France


Discussed the withdrawal of occupation troops
Then added France to the alliance (created Quintuple Alliance)
Congress System

Congress of Laibach (January-May, 1821)

Designed to deal with the Spanish Civil War and the Revolt in
the Two Scilies


In both cases, the conservative governments were overthrown by
radical groups
Metternich issued his Troppau Protocol




If a country’s government was overthrown by revolution, it was no
longer part of the European alliance
If this new government was seen as a threat to the rest of Europe, it is
the duty of the other countries to end that threat
It was an attempt by Metternich to keep the balance of power in
Europe
France and Britain refused to go along with it
Congress System

Congress of Verona (October 20-December 14, 1822)


Two main issues
Greek War of Independence (1821-1829)



Greek nationals led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire
They were hoping to gain independence with the help of Russia
Continuing problems in Spain




By 1822, Ferdinand VII was a virtual prisoner
There were calls for armed intervention in Spain
Britain refused to participate as part of an international force
France was willing to join as it did not want a revolutionary
government right next door
Congress System

Restoration of Ferdinand VII



Ferdinand VII was reinstated as king by August 1823
He instituted repressive and brutal measures against the
liberals and revolutionaries
Failure of the Congress System


Congress system’s main goal was to preserve the status quo
However, each member had its own agenda


In the case of Britain, it was not willing to give up its independence to
be part of an international force
Strengthening liberalism and nationalism

Because of its repressive measures, the Quintuple Alliance actually
strengthened the liberal and nationalist forces

Liberty Leading the People

July Revolution
Revolutions 1830-1832

The reactionary system broke in 1830 with the July
Revolution in France



It continued on in Belgium, Poland, and Italy
Liberalism began to win out over conservatism
July Revolution (July 27-29, 1830)






Response of France to the publication of the July Ordinances
Middle bourgeoisie were angered at losing their political rights
Started riots in the city of Paris
Barricades were set up around the city
A new provisional government was set up
Charles abdicated in favor of his 10-year-old grandson, Henri
July Revolution

Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)





Duke of Orléans
He had fought for the Revolution and had been a member of
the Jacobin club
Was crowned on August 9, 1830 as “King of the French” rather
than “King of France”
Promised to uphold the Charter of 1814
Some modifications were made to the Charter

Called for a greater amount of voters for the Chamber of
Deputies from 100,000 to 200,000



This meant that 1/30th of the male population could vote
Gave power to the upper Bourgeoisie
Many were fearful this was a “true” revolution

King Louis-Philippe

(1830-1848)
Belgian Revolution

United Kingdom of the Netherlands



United Provinces of the Netherlands and the Austrian
Netherlands had been united under one crown in 1815
Nice idea but did not work
Tensions between Belgians and Dutch





Dutch were the majority
Dominated all aspects of life: politically, economically, and
socially
Laws were designed to benefit primarily the Dutch
Belgians were used to self-rule
The Dutch did not allow for this
Belgian Revolution

Belgians were very different from their northern
counterparts



In 1823, the government made Dutch the official



Belgians were Catholic while in the north they were Protestant
Belgians were uncomfortable with Calvinist king William I
The Belgians spoke French, not Dutch
It was revoked in June 1830, but remained an issue
On August 25, 1830 riots broke out in the city of Brussels


The rioters at first demanded self-rule
As more radicals took control of the riots, they demanded
secession from the Dutch state
Belgian Revolution

William I was unsuccessful in putting down the rebellion


Secession



Called for elections for a National Congress to draw up a new
constitution
On October 4, 1830, issued a Declaration of Independence
Major powers attempted to intervene but both sides
refused treaties


Mainly due to the French sending in troops to help the Belgians
The powers agreed that that the kingdom should be divided
Creation of Belgium


On February 7, 1831, a new constitution was completed
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was chosen as their new king

The Belgian Revolution
November Revolution


Initially, Poland enjoyed some liberalism
After 1815, Alexander began repressing liberal ideas in
Poland like he had in Russia





Appointed reactionary Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich as
governor-general
This went against the constitution of Poland
Set up a secret police to put down secret societies
Also enacted censorship of the press
After 1825, the sessions of the Polish parliament were
kept secret
November Revolution

November Revolution






Alexander planned to send Russian troops through Poland to
put down the revolutions in France and Belgium
November 29, 1830, a group of cadets from Warsaw attacked
the place that Pavlovich was residing in
Removed the Russian ministers from the government
December 13, the Polish parliament announced official uprising
January 25, 1831, the parliament officially dethroned Nikolai
Russia responded by sending troops in February 1831


Without any international aid, the Poles were crushed
Poland was absorbed into the Russian Empire

Polish Revolution of 1830
Reform in Great Britain


Britain changed through reform rather than revolution
Rise of the Liberal Tories






Eased up on numerous trade restrictions
Revoked the Test Acts to allow Catholics legal equality
Designed a more effective criminal justice system (“bobbies”)
Could not revoke Corn Laws
Could not reform House of Commons
Lack of Representation


Only those “forty-shilling freeholders” could vote
House of Commons was dominated by the wealthy
landowners
Reform in Great Britain

Impact of the July Revolution




Gave inspiration to the radicals
Gave hope to the middle class as the bourgeoisie were able to
gain power so quickly
Many were demanding reforms
Reform Bills were introduced




House of Commons refused the first
Whigs resigned from office in protest but returned
Next bill passed the Commons but failed in Lords
People were fearful of a potential revolution
Reform in Great Britain

Reform Act of 1832







Proposed by Prime Minister Lord Charles Earl Grey
Designed to “take effectual Measures for correcting diverse
Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to
serve in the Commons”
Eliminated votes from small populations (“rotten” boroughs)
Reallocated 143 parliamentary seats from the rural south to
the industrial north
Expanded number of eligible voters by 60% (1:6 could vote)
Voters were required to have at least £10 worth of property
Landed aristocracy still had the political strength to dominate
politics
Reform in Great Britain

More reforms




Slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire in 1833
Municipal Corporations Act (1835) reorganized the political
structures of cities
In 1836, Commons was opened to journalists to report on
who voted for what
Tory Counteroffensive



Became the champions of the industrial working class
Pushed through the Factory Acts of the 1830s and 1840s
Most important one was the Ten Hours Act (1847)
Reform in Great Britain

Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)





Pushed through by the Whigs and the Anti-Corn Law League
Saw how the inflated price of corn was affecting working class
Promoted repeal through political rallies, tea gatherings, and
torchlight processions
Also, there was a growing famine in Ireland
Shift in focus



No longer was the landed gentry the focus of politics
Now it was the industrial classes, both the owners and
workers
Two concerns: promoting free trade and maintaining Britian’s
domination of the seas

Charles Earl Grey


Prime Minister
(1830-1834)
Triumph of the Bourgeoisie


After 1830, things improved for the bourgeoisie
England saw the greatest changes




Greater enfranchisement of the middle class
1:8 men were eligible to vote
Did not have full control of industry due to Tory legislation but
had greater freedoms
France was more limited




Only 1:30 men could vote
Aristocracy still had more control but was weakening
Less restrictions on the working conditions than Britain
Gave industry leaders more control
Triumph of the Bourgeoisie

Financial impact of the bourgeoisie






Industry continues to grow
Rise of corporations and stock companies
Western European nations see steady rise in income
Only a few people saw the increase in wealth
They reinvested it in their businesses
Many in the working class felt cheated



They had hoped the revolutions of 1830 would have caused
greater change
Instead they still were not able to vote
Radicals in France and Britain wanted more change
Triumph of the Bourgeoisie

Characteristics of the labor market





Focused on ideas of the Manchester School
Labor should receive minimum wage to survive
Work was a commodity and wages should be dependent upon
the need for workers
Factory work should be miserable so people would want to
rise out of it
Poor Law of 1834




Gave relief to the poor
Made life miserable so people would not continue to live on it
Were required to live in workhouses or poorhouses
Did nothing to help people get out of poverty

Chartist Riots
Chartism

Since revolutions did not work, workers turned to other
means for change




Slow formation of labor unions
Turn to socialism (esp. in France)
In Britain, turn to Chartism
Chartism



Grew in response to the Reform Act of 1832
Included working class and radicals who wanted greater
enfranchisement
Small group, including Members of Parliament, published the
People’s Charter in 1838
Chartism

Charter of 1838







Was a six-point plan that demanded:
Annual elections for the House of Commons
Suffrage for all males over the age of 21
Voting by secret ballot
Equal electoral districts
Payment of salaries for members of Parliament
Chartist Convention (February-May 1839)



Was attended by labor unionists, radicals, and poor workers
Some called for strikes and violence
Others wanted to put non-violent pressure on Parliament
Chartism

In June 1839, a petition was submitted to the House of
Commons




Led to a wave of violence




Listed the main grievances of the chartists
Signed by over 1 million people
The Commons overwhelmingly voted the petition down
Sparked by the more radical wing of the chartists
Believed only violence could bring change
Put down by the military
Worsening economic conditions


Britain suffered from an economic depression in 1841-1842
Chartism became more and more popular
Chartism

Another petition was brought forth in May 1842



This time signed by over 3.3 million people
Once again, it was rejected by the Commons
Plug Plot Riots






After the rejection, general strikes broke out
Involved half a million workers
Demanded wages to be restored to 1820 values
Also wanted 10-hour work days
Known as the “plug plot riots” because workers removed
plugs from the steam boilers so they could not be used in the
factories
Over 1,500 workers were arrested
Chartism


Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals
William Lovett



Feargus O’Connor




Focused on self-improvement through education
Wanted to use non-violent means to get political change
Appealed to the impoverished and desperate class of workers
Attacked industrialization
Land Plan - Buy huge estates and lease small plots to farmers
Bronterre O’Brien


Openly admired Robespierre and Gracchus Babeuf
Focused on violent revolution
Chartism

Kennington Commons Protest (April 10, 1848)







Chartists planned a major show of force in London
Around 25,000 workers marched to Parliament
Presented a petition of 1.9 million signatures demanding the
Six Points
However, many of the signatures were forgeries
This discredited the movement
Many of the supporters turned to other radical movements
Britain will eventually adopt most of the Six Points

However it will not occur until 1918

Protest of 1848