Transcript Chap 3 Powerpoint

Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Twelfth Edition
Shier w Butler w Lewis
Chapter
3
Cells
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1
3.1: Introduction
• The basic organizational structure of the human body is the
cell.
• There are 50-100 trillion cells in the human body.
• Differentiation is when cells specialize.
• As a result of differentiation, cells vary in size and shape
due to their unique function.
2
3.2: A Composite Cell
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• Also called a ‘typical’
cell
• Major parts include:
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Cell membrane
Phospholipid bilayer
Flagellum
Nucleus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Ribosomes
Cell membrane
Basal body
Microtubules
Rough
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrioles
Mitochondrion
Smooth
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Microvilli
Secretory
vesicles
Cilia
Golgi
apparatus
Microtubule
Microtubules
Lysosomes
3
Cell Membrane
(aka Plasma Membrane)
• Outer limit of the cell
• Controls what moves in and out of the cell
• Selectively permeable
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Water-soluble “heads” form surfaces (hydrophilic)
• Water-insoluble “tails” form interior (hydrophobic)
• Permeable to lipid-soluble substances
• Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane
• Proteins:
• Receptors
• Pores, channels and carriers
• Enzymes
• CAMS
• Self-markers
4
Cell Membrane
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Extracellular side
of membrane
Fibrous protein
Glycolipid Carbohydrate
Glycoprotein
“Heads” of
phospholipid
Double
layer of
Phospholipid
molecules
“Tails” of
phospholipid
Cell membrane
(a)
Cell membrane
(b)
a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Cholesterol Globular
molecules protein
Cytoplasmic side
of membrane
Hydrophobic
fatty acid
“tail”
Hydrophilic
Phosphate
“head”
5
Cell Adhesion Molecules
(CAMs)
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• Guide cells on the move
• Selectin – allows white blood
cells to “anchor”
• Integrin – guides white blood
cells through capillary walls
• Important for growth of
embryonic tissue
• Important for growth of nerve
cells
White blood cell
Attachment
(rolling)
Selectin
Carbohydrates
on capillary wall
Adhesion
receptor proteins
Adhesion
Integrin
Blood vessel
lining cell
Exit
Splinter
6
Cytoplasm
• Cytosol = water
• Organelles = solids
Cytoplasm is really like a Jello fruit salad
where the Jello is the cytosol and the fruits
(oranges, grapes, bananas, maybe walnuts,
etc.) are the organelles.
7
Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Connected, membrane-bound
sacs, canals, and vesicles
• Transport system
• Rough ER
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Membranes
Membranes
• Studded with ribosomes
• Smooth ER
• Lipid synthesis
• Added to proteins
arriving from rough ER
• Break down of drugs
Ribosomes
(b)
Ribosomes
• Free floating or connected to ER
• Provide structural support and enzyme activity
to amino acids to form protein
(c)
8
Organelles
Golgi apparatus
• Stack of flattened,
membranous sacs
• Modifies, packages
and delivers proteins
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Vesicles
• Membranous sacs
• Store substances
Mitochondria
• Membranous sacs with
inner partitions
• Generate energy
Inner membrane
Cristae
Outer membrane
(a)
(b)
a: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.
9
Organelles
Lysosomes
• Enzyme-containing
sacs
• Digest worn out cell
parts or unwanted
substances
Centrosome
• Two rod-like centrioles
• Used to produce cilia and
flagella
• Distributes chromosomes
during cell division
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Peroxisomes
• Enzyme-containing
sacs
• Break down organic
molecules
Centriole
(cross-section)
Centriole
(longitudinal section)
(a)
(b)
a: © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited
10
Organelles
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Cilia
• Short hair-like projections
• Propel substances on cell
surface
Flagellum
• Long tail-like projection
• Provides motility to sperm
(a)
a: © Oliver Meckes/Photo Researchers, Inc.
11
© Colin Anderson/Brand X/CORBIS
Organelles
Microfilaments and microtubules
• Thin rods and tubules
• Support cytoplasm
• Allows for movement of
organelles
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Microtubules
Inclusions
• Temporary nutrients and
pigments
Microfilaments
© M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited
12
3.2 Clinical Application p.87
Disease at the Organelle Level
1. What is MELAS? What organelle is associated
with it?
2. What is Tay-sachs Disease? What organelle is
associated with it?
3. What is ALD? What organelle is associated with
it?
13
Cell Nucleus
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• Is the control center of the cell
• Nuclear envelope
• Porous double membrane
• Separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm
• Nucleolus
• Dense collection of RNA and
proteins
• Site of ribosome production
Nucleus
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
• Chromatin
• Fibers of DNA and proteins
• Stores information for synthesis of
proteins
Chromatin
Nuclear
pores
(a)
14
3.3: Movements Into
and Out of the Cell
Passive (Physical) Processes
• Require no cellular
energy and include:
• Simple diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
• Filtration
Active (Physiological) Processes
• Require cellular energy and
include:
• Active transport
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
• Transcytosis
15
Simple Diffusion
• Movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances
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Permeable
membrane
A
B
(1)
Solute molecule
Water molecule
A
B
(2)
Time
A
B
(3)
16
Animation:
How Diffusion Works
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17
Facilitated Diffusion
• Diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or carrier
molecule
• Glucose and amino acids
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Region of higher
concentration
Transported
substance
Region of lower
concentration
Protein carrier
molecule
Cell
membrane
18
Animation:
How Facilitated Diffusion Works
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19
Animation:
Diffusion Through Cell
Membranes
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20
Osmosis
• Movement of water through a selectively permeable
membrane from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration
• Water moves toward a higher concentration of solutes
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Selectively
permeable
membrane
Protein molecule
Water molecule
A
A
B
B
(1)
(2)
Time
21
Animation:
How Osmosis Works
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22
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
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• Osmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generate
enough pressure to move a volume of water
• Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration
of nonpermeable solutes increases
• Isotonic – same osmotic pressure
• Hypertonic – higher osmotic
pressure (water loss)
• Hypotonic – lower osmotic
pressure (water gain)
(a)
(b)
(c)
© David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited
23
Filtration
• Smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes
• Hydrostatic pressure important in the body
• Molecules leaving blood capillaries
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Capillary wall
Blood
pressure
Tissue fluid
Blood
flow
Larger molecules
Smaller molecules
24
Active Transport
• Carrier molecules transport substances across a membrane from
regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration
• Sugars, amino acids, sodium ions, potassium ions, etc.
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Carrier protein
Binding site
Cell membrane
Region of higher
concentration
Region of lower
concentration
Phospholipid
molecules
Transported
particle
(a)
Carrier protein
with altered shape
Cellular
energy
(b)
25
Animation:
Primary Active Transport
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26
Animation:
Secondary Active Transport
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27
Active Transport:
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• Active transport mechanism
• Creates balance by “pumping” three (3) sodium (Na+) OUT and
two (2) potassium (K+) INTO the cell
• 3:2 ratio
28
Animation:
How the Sodium-Potassium
Pump Works
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29
Endocytosis
• Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around the
substance
• Three types:
• Pinocytosis – substance is mostly water
• Phagocytosis – substance is a solid
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the substance
to bind to a membrane-bound receptor
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Cell
Particle
membrane
Nucleus Nucleolus
Phagocytized
particle
Vesicle
30
Endocytosis
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Cell
Particle
membrane
Phagocytized
particle
Vesicle
Nucleus Nucleolus
Receptor-ligand
combination
Molecules
outside cell
Vesicle
Receptor
protein
Cell
membrane
Cell
membrane
indenting
Cytoplasm
(a)
(b)
(c)
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(d)
Exocytosis
• Reverse of endocytosis
• Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane
• Contents released outside the cell
• Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells
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Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
apparatus
Nucleus
32
Transcytosis
• Endocytosis followed by exocytosis
• Transports a substance rapidly through a cell
• HIV crossing a cell layer
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HIV-infected
white blood cells
Anal or
vaginal canal
Viruses bud
HIV
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Lining of anus
or vagina
(epithelial cells)
Cell
membrane
Exocytosis
Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
Virus infects
white blood cells on
other side of lining
33
3.4: The Cell Cycle
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• Series of changes a cell
undergoes from the time it
forms until the time it divide
• Stages:
• Interphase
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
G2 phase
S phase:
genetic
material
replicates
G1 phase
cell growth
Proceed
to division
Remain
specialized
Apoptosis
Cytokinesis
Restriction
checkpoint
34
Interphase
• Very active period
• Cell grows
• Cell maintains routine functions
• Cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division
• Cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic
division
• Phases:
• G phases – cell grows and synthesizes structures other than
DNA
• S phase – cell replicates DNA
35
Mitosis
• Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell
• Nucleus divides – karyokinesis
• Cytoplasm divides – cytokinesis
• Phases of nuclear division:
• Prophase – chromosomes form; nuclear envelope disappears
• Metaphase – chromosomes align midway between
centrioles
• Anaphase – chromosomes separate and move to centrioles
• Telophase – chromatin forms; nuclear envelope forms
36
Mitosis
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Late Interphase
Cell has passed the
restriction checkpoint
and completed DNA
replication, as well as
replication of centrioles
and mitochondria, and
synthesis of extra
membrane.
(a)
Early Interphase
of daughter cells—
a time of normal cell
growth and function.
Restriction
checkpoint
Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin
fibers
Centrioles
Cleavage
furrow
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and
become visible. Nuclear
envelope and nucleolus
disperse. Spindle apparatus
forms.
Aster
Microtubules
(e)
(b)
Centromere
Late prophase
Spindle fiber
Sister
chromatids
Chromosomes
Nuclear
envelopes
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Nuclear envelopes begin to
reassemble around two daughter
nuclei. Chromosomes decondense.
Spindle disappears. Division of
the cytoplasm into two cells.
(d)
(c)
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
G1 phase
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate to
opposite poles of cell. Events
begin which lead to cytokinesis.
Metaphase
Chromosomes align along
equator, or metaphase plate
of cell.
© Ed Reschke
S phase
G2 phase
Interphase
37
Animation:
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
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38
Cytoplasmic Division
• Also known as cytokinesis
• Begins during anaphase
• Continues through telophase
• Contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in half
39
Animation:
Control of the Cell Cycle
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40
3.5: Control of Cell Division
• Cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types
• Skin and blood cells divide often and continually
• Neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease
• Chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis
provide a mitotic clock
• Cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to
volume relationship
• Growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division
• Hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus
• Epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin
• Contact (density dependent) inhibition
• Tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control
41
Tumors
• Two types of tumors:
• Benign – usually remains
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localized
• Malignant – invasive and can
Normal cells
(with hairlike cilia)
metastasize; cancerous
• Two major types of genes
cause cancer:
• Oncogenes – activate other
genes that increase cell division
• Tumor suppressor genes –
normally regulate mitosis; if
inactivated they are unable to
regulate mitosis
• Cells are now known as
“immortal”
Cancer cells
© Tony Brain/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
42
Animation:
How Tumor Suppressor Genes
Block Cell Division
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43
3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells
• Stem cell:
• Can divide to form two new stem cells
• Self-renewal
• Can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell
• Totipotent – can give rise to every cell type
• Pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types
• Progenitor cell:
• Committed cell
• Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells
• Pluripotent
44
Stem and Progenitor Cells
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Sperm
Sebaceous
gland cell
Egg
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor cell
Fertilized
egg
Skin cell
Stem cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Stem cell
Neuron
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Astrocyte
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Bone cells
Progenitor
cell
one or more steps
Fibroblasts (a connective tissue cells)
Blood cells and platelets
produces another stem cell
(self-renewal)
45
3.1 From Science to Technology
Therapeutic Stem Cells
46
3.7: Cell Death
Apoptosis:
• Programmed cell death
• Acts as a protective mechanism
• Is a continuous process
47
Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.1: Introduction
 Define cell.
 State the range of cell numbers and cells sizes in a human body.
 State the term for cell specialization.
3.2: A Composite Cell
 List the three major parts of a composite cell.
 State the general function of organelles.
 Explain how the structure of a cell membrane makes possible its
function.
 Describe each type of organelle, and explain its function.
 Describe the parts of a cell nucleus and their functions.
48
Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.3: Movement Into and Out of the Cell
 Explain the various ways that substances move through the cell
membrane.
 Discuss how the mechanisms of crossing cell membranes differ.
3.4: The Cell Cycle
 Describe the parts of the cell cycle and identify the major activities
during each part.
 Explain why regulation of the cell cycle is important to health.
 Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
 List the stages of mitosis and describe the events of each stage.
49
Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.5: Control of Cell Division
 Explain how different types of cells differ in their rate of cells division.
 State the range of cell divisions a cell typically undergoes.
 Discuss factors that influence whether or not a cell divides.
 Explain how cancer arises from too-frequent cell division.
 Distinguish the two types of genetic control of cancer.
3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells
 Define differentiation.
 Distinguish between a stem cell and a progenitor cell.
 Explain how two differentiated cell types can have the same genetic
information, but different appearances and functions.
50
Important Points in Chapter 3:
Outcomes to be Assessed
3.7: Cell Death
 Define apoptosis.
 Distinguish apoptosis from necrosis.
 List the steps of apoptosis.
 Describe the relationship between apoptosis and mitosis.
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Quiz 3
Complete Quiz 3 now!
Read Chapter 4.
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