Transcript Slide 1
Welcome
Welcome to BIO 204 Anatomy & Physiology II
Mrs. Wendy Rappazzo
Associate Professor, Biology
Textbook Features
Important features of the textbook
Learning Outcomes
Illustrations and
Photos
Pronunciation Guides
Checkpoint Questions
The A&P Top 100
Tips & Tricks
Clinical Notes
Chain Link Icons
End-of-Chapter Study
and Review Materials
Systems Overview
Section
System in Perspective
Summaries
Colored Tabs
End-of-Book
Reference Sections
Learning Supplements
Supplements
The InterActive Physiology® (IP) CD
HCC Portal for Mastering A and P Required &
Supplemental Material (very helpful)
Get Ready for A&P! (available online)
Atlas of the Human Body
A&P Applications Manual
Study Guide (optional)
Faculty website:
Class & Lab Supplies
● 2 – 3” 3 ring binder (recommended 1 binder
per unit) with extra paper
● pencils, pens, colored pencils, highlighter
● index cards
● lab folder with prongs or binder
Anatomy & Physiology Review
Concepts from
BIO 099/119 & BIO 203
(see also BIO 099/119 review from
BIO 203 website)
Chemistry Review – Chapter 2
Chemistry Review
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Elements of the Human Body
Chemistry Review
Inorganic
Organic
Water
CHO
Electrolytes
Lipids
Acids/Bases
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
pH and Homeostasis
pH
The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution
pH Scale: 0 - 14
A balance of H+ and OH—
Pure water = 7.0
< 7 = acidic
> 7 = alkaline
pH of human blood
Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45
pH and Homeostasis
pH Scale
Has an inverse relationship with H+
concentration
More H+ ions mean lower pH, less H+ ions mean
higher pH
pH and Homeostasis
FIGURE 2–9 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration.
Carbohydrates
Important Concepts:
We only burn glucose for fuel –
Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles
Glycogenesis: making glycogen from glucose
Glycogenolysis: breaking glycogen down into glucose
Gluconeogenesis: making glucose from amino acids &
glycerol
Lipids
Important Concepts:
Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated
Unsaturated can be omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids – important health
implications
Fatty acids & Glycerol are the preferred fuel source for many tissues.
Proteins
Proteins are the most abundant and
important organic molecules
Contain basic elements : C,H,O and N
Basic building blocks
20 amino acids: essential vs. nonessential
Proteins
Enzymes are catalysts
Proteins that are not changed or used up in the
reaction
– specific — will only work on limited types of substrates
– limited — by their saturation
– regulated — by other cellular chemicals
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are large organic molecules, found
in the nucleus, which store and process
information at the molecular level
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Codes for every protein
Double stranded
ATCG
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Important for protein synthesis
Single stranded
AUCG
ATP
Nucleotides can be used to
store energy
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
-Two phosphate groups; di- = 2
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Three phosphate groups; tri- = 3
ADP + P ↔ATP + E
ATPase : The enzyme that catalyzes
phosphorylation (the addition of a
high-energy phosphate group to a
molecule)
-
A Review of Cells
Cell surrounded by a watery
medium known as the extracellular
fluid (interstitial fluid)
Plasma membrane separates
cytoplasm from the ECF
Cytoplasm - Cytosol = liquid
-contains organelles
BioFlix Tour of Animal Cell
Organelles and the Cytoplasm
Cytosol (fluid)
Dissolved materials:
– nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products
High potassium/low sodium
High protein
High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat
Organelles
Structures with specific functions
Organelles Review
Organelles Review
Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism (cellular
respiration)
Mitochondria use O2 to break down
food and produce ATP
G + O2 + ADP CO2 + H2O + ATP
Glycolysis:
glucose to pyruvic acid
net gain 2 ATP
when anaerobic= lactic acid
Transition Reaction:
pyruvic acid to acetyl Co-A
Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism (cellular
respiration)
Mitochondria use O2 to break down
food and produce ATP
G + O2 + ADP CO2 + H2O + ATP
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA or Krebs
cycle):
– Acetyl CoA to CO2 (in matrix) & reduced
coenzymes
Electron transport chain
– inner mitochondrial membrane
H+ ions used to make ATP
The Nucleus
DNA
Instructions for every protein in
the body
Gene
DNA instructions for one protein
Genetic code
The chemical language of DNA
instructions:
– sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)
Triplet code:
– 3 bases = 1 amino acid
Cell Differentiation
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all
body functions
Cells specialize or differentiate
To form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons)
By turning off all genes not needed by that cell
All body cells, except sex cells, contain the same
46 chromosomes
Differentiation depends on which genes are
active and which are inactive
Cell Division
Mitosis and Cancer
Mitosis and Cancer
Mitosis and Cancer
Protein Synthesis
The Role of Gene Activation in Protein
Synthesis
The nucleus contains chromosomes
Chromosomes contain DNA
DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins
Proteins determine cell structure and function
Protein Synthesis
Transcription
Copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)
Translation
Ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm)
Assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain
Processing
By RER and Golgi apparatus produce protein
Functions of the Plasma Membrane
Physical Barrier
Regulates exchange
Ions and nutrients enter
Wastes eliminated and
cellular products released
Monitors the environment
Extracellular fluid
composition
Chemical signals
Structural support
Anchors cells and tissues
Membrane Transport
The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but
Nutrients must get in
Products and wastes must get out
Permeability determines what moves in and out of a
cell, and a membrane that
Lets nothing in or out is impermeable
Lets anything pass is freely permeable
Restricts movement is selectively permeable
Membrane Transport
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable
Allows some materials to move freely
Restricts other materials
Selective permeability restricts materials based
on
Size
Electrical charge
Molecular shape
Lipid solubility
Membrane permeability
Diffusion
Diffusion is a Function of the Concentration
Gradient & Kinetic Energy
Solutes move down a concentration gradient until?
Factors Affecting Diffusion
Distance the particle has to move
Molecule size
Temperature
Gradient size
Electrical forces
Filtration
Movement of molecules due to a pressure
gradient (net filtration pressure)
Osmotic Pressure: pressure which holds
water (absorption): in blood mainly
due to plasma proteins
Hydrostatic Pressure: pressure which
pushes molecules out of blood
(filtration)
Tonicity
A cell in a hypotonic
solution:
Gains water
Ruptures (hemolysis of red
blood cells)
A cell in a hypertonic
solution:
Loses water
Shrinks (crenation of red
blood cells)
Carriers and Vesicles
Carrier-Mediated
Transport
Facilitated diffusion
Specificity:
Saturation limits:
Regulation:
Carriers and Vesicles
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Cotransport
Two substances move in the same direction at the
same time
Countertransport
One substance moves in while another moves out
Carriers and Vesicles
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Active transport
Active transport proteins:
– move substrates against concentration gradient
– require energy, such as ATP
– ion pumps move ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+)
– exchange pump countertransports two ions at the same
time
Carriers and Vesicles
Active transport
Sodium-potassium
exchange pump
sodium ions (Na+) out,
potassium ions (K+) in
-1 ATP moves 3 Na+ and 2 K+
Carriers and Vesicles
Active transport Secondary active transport
-Na+ concentration gradient drives
glucose transport
– ATP energy pumps Na+ back out
Carriers and Vesicles
Vesicular Transport (or bulk transport)
Materials move into or out of cell in vesicles
Endocytosis (endo- = inside) is active transport using ATP:
– receptor mediated
– pinocytosis
– phagocytosis
Exocytosis (exo- = outside)
– Granules or droplets are released from the cell
Carriers and Vesicles
Endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
Receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules (ligands)
Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and receptors
into the cell
Carriers and Vesicles
Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Endosomes “drink” extracellular fluid
Phagocytosis
Pseudopodia (psuedo- = false, pod- = foot)
Engulf large objects in phagosomes
Carriers and
Vesicles
Figure 3–22 Phagocytosis.
Carriers and Vesicles
Exocytosis
Is the reverse of endocytosis
Secretion
Transmembrane Potential
Interior of plasma membrane is slightly negative,
outside is slightly positive
Unequal charge across the plasma membrane is
transmembrane potential or RMP
Resting potential ranges from –10 mV to
–100 mV, depending on cell type
Transmembrane Potential
Determined mainly by the unequal distribution of
Na+ & K+
The cell's interior has a greater concent. of K+
and the outside has a greater concent. of Na+
At rest the plasma membrane is relatively
impermeable to Na+ and freely permeable to K+
Transmembrane Potential
The cell has 2 types of channels:
1.) Passive (leaky)
2.) Gated
RMP animation (NS I: membrane potential page 12/16)
Transmembrane Potential
More K diffuses out of
the cell than Na
diffuses into the cell
Results in a loss of +
charges from the cell
= negative RMP
Cell is polarized.
Transmembrane Potential
If too much K left the cell it
would become too negative =
hyperpolarize
If Na was allowed to
accumulate inside the cell it
would become less negative
(more positive) or depolarize.
Also entrance of Na into the cell
would change the tonicity of
the cell
Transmembrane Potential
The Na-K pump
functions to
maintain the
osmotic balance
& membrane
voltage
Transmembrane Potential
When stimulus
applied:
Gated Na+
channels open =
depolarization
Gated K+ channels
open so K+ leaves
= repolarization
Transmembrane Potential
How would
changing
blood/plasma
Na+ & K+ levels
change this
process?
By changing
diffusion gradient
Transmembrane Potential
K+ leaves for
repolarization
because?
Hypokalemia?
Hyperkalemia?
Muscle Review
Muscle Review
Neuron Review
Neurons need a constant supply of?
Amitotic
Conduct nerve impulses – control
Blood-Brain barrier important to regulate
environment of CNS
barrier of astrocytes
CNS
Functions of?
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Hypothalamus
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
CNS
Cranial Nerves:
Glossopharyngeal #?,
mixed or motor?
Vagus #?, mixed or
motor?
ANS
Parasympathetic
Releases AcH at
cholinergic receptors
Nicotinic
Muscarinic
75% of all parasym.
carried by?
Effects?
Sympathetic
Releases NE at
adrenergic receptors
β1, β2, β3
α 1, α 2,
Information carried via
ganglia & adrenal
medulla
Effects?
Hormones - Yikes
Pituitary Gland
Anterior
Posterior
GH
CHO Sparing
Anabolic
Hormone
ADH
↓ urine output
TSH
Release of T4/T3
Oxytocin
Uterine
contractions
ACTH
Release of
Aldosterone &
Cortisol
Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid
Parathyroid
T4/T3
● Metabolic Hormones
● Calorigenic
● Stimulates adrenergic
receptors
Calcitonin
↓ plasma Ca++ levels
PTH
↑ plasma Ca++
levels
Pancreas
Beta Cells
Insulin
Alpha Cells
↓plasma glucose levels
▪ hypoglycemic
▪ glycogenesis
▪ lipogenesis
▪ protein synthesis
Glucagon
↑ plasma glucose
levels
▪ hyperglycemic
▪ glycogenolysis
▪ gluconeogenesis
▪ lipolysis
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Cortex
Aldosterone
↓plasma K+, ↑ plasma
Na+ levels
▪ ↓Na+ (& H2O) loss in
urine
▪ ↑BV & BP
Cortisol
“stress hormone”
↑ plasma glucose & FA
levels
▪ immune suppressant
Adrenal Medulla
Epi & NE
↑ plasma glucose &
FA levels
▪ hyperglycemic
▪ glycogenolysis
▪ gluconeogenesis
▪ lipolysis
▪ fight or flight
▪ bind to adrenergic
receptors
Gonads
Ovaries
Testes
Estrogen
▪ secondary sex
characteristics
▪ maintains bone
density
▪ ↑HDL cholesterol
Progesterone
▪ mainly targets uterus
Testosterone
▪ anabolic
▪ ↑ hematocrit
▪ secondary sex
characteristics
Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine
Organs
Stomach
Small Intestine
Gastrin
▪ enhances digestion
▪ stimulates
production of gastric
juice
CCK
▪ enhances digestion
▪ stimulates release of
enzyme-rich
pancreatic juice
Ghrelin
▪ stimulates appetite
▪ lipogenesis
Secretin
▪ stimulates release of
HCO3-rich pancreatic
juice
Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine
Organs
Heart
ANF (ANP)
Kidney
▪ ↑ Na+ excretion at
kidneys
▪ ↑ urine output
▪ ↓ BV & BP
Adipocytes
Leptin
↑ use of fat for fuel
suppresses appetite
EPO
▪ stimulates production
of RBCs
Calcitriol
▪ enhances absorption
of Ca++
Homeostasis Review
Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback
▪ reverses change
▪ enhances change
○ intrinsic (autoregulation)
○ extrinsic – nervous/endocrine
systems
▪ examples?
▪ examples?