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The Digestive
System
Overview of the Digestive System
Nervous System of the Digestive System
Peritoneum
Layers of the GI Tract
Organs of the Digestive System
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The Digestive
System
(continued)
Stomach
Small Intestine and Associated Structures
Large Intestine
Chemical Digestion
Absorption
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The Digestive
System
(continued)
Phases of Digestion
Development of the Digestive System
Digestive System Disorders and Clinical Cases
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The Digestive System > Overview of the Digestive System
Overview of the Digestive System
• Anatomy of the Digestive System
• Processes and Functions of the Digestive System
• Organs of the Digestive System
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The Digestive System > Nervous System of the Digestive System
Nervous System of the Digestive System
• Enteric Nervous System
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Gastrointestinal Reflex Pathways
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The Digestive System > Peritoneum
Peritoneum
• The Peritoneum
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The Digestive System > Layers of the GI Tract
Layers of the GI Tract
• Mucosa
• Submucosa
• Muscularis
• Serosa
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The Digestive System > Organs of the Digestive System
Organs of the Digestive System
• Mouth
• Associated Organs
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Digestion in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
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The Digestive System > Stomach
Stomach
• Gross Anatomy of the Stomach
• Microscopic Anatomy of the Stomach
• Digestive Properties of the Stomach
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The Digestive System > Small Intestine and Associated Structures
Small Intestine and Associated Structures
• Anatomy of the Small Intestine
• Histology of the Small Intestine
• The Liver and Gallbladder
• Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder
• Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder
• Blood Supply to the Liver
• Bile
• Liver Function
• Pancreas
• Anatomy of the Pancreas
• Histology of the Pancreas
• Pancreatic Juice
• Digestive Processes of the Small Intestine
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The Digestive System > Large Intestine
Large Intestine
• Anatomy of the Large Intestine
• Histology of the Large Intestine
• Bacterial Flora
• Digestive Processes of the Large Intestine
• Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine
• Defecation Reflex
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The Digestive System > Chemical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
• Mechanisms of Chemical Digestion
• Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic
Acids
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The Digestive System > Absorption
Absorption
• Absorption in the Small Intestine
• Absorption of Monosaccharides, Amino Acids, Dipeptides, Tripeptides,
Lipids, Electrolytes, Vitamins, and Water
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The Digestive System > Phases of Digestion
Phases of Digestion
• Cephalic Phase
• Gastric Phase
• Intestinal Phase
• Hormones of the Digestive System
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The Digestive System > Development of the Digestive System
Development of the Digestive System
• Digestive System Development
• Aging and the Digestive System
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The Digestive System > Digestive System Disorders and Clinical Cases
Digestive System Disorders and Clinical Cases
• Malabsorption of Nutrients
• Peritonitis
• Mumps
• Root Canal Therapy
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
• Pylorospasm and Pyloric Stenosis
• Vomiting
• Pancreatic Cancer
• Jaundice
• Gallstones
• Lactose Intolerance
• Absorption of Alcohol
• Appendicitis
• Polyps in the Colon
• Occult Blood
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The Digestive System > Digestive System Disorders and Clinical Cases
• Dietary Fiber
• Appendicitis
• X-Ray Studies of the GI Tract
• Dental Caries
• Periodontal Disease
• Peptic Ulcer Disease
• Diverticular Disease
• Colorectal Cancer
• Hepatitis
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Appendix
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The Digestive System
Key terms
• abscess A cavity caused by tissue destruction, usually because of infection, filled with pus and surrounded by inflamed tissue.
• acini An acinus (adjective: acinar, plural acini) refers to any cluster of cells that resembles a many-lobed "berry," such as a
raspberry (acinus is Latin for berry).
• adenoid One of two folds of lymphatic tissue covered by ciliated epithelium. They are found in the roof and posterior wall of the
nasopharynx at the back of the throat behind the uvula. They may obstruct normal breathing and make speech difficult when
swollen, a condition often called adenitis.
• alcohol dehydrogenase A group of six enzymes that metabolize alcohol.
• alcoholic liver disease A term that encompasses the hepatic manifestations of alcohol over-consumption, including fatty liver,
alcoholic hepatitis, and chronic hepatitis with hepatic fibrosis or cirrhosis.
• alimentary canal the organs of a human or an animal through which food passes
• alkalosis An abnormally increased alkalinity in the blood.
• alveolar arch The part of the upper or lower jawbones in which the teeth are set.
• amylase Any of a class of digestive enzymes, present in saliva, that break down complex carbohydrates such as starch into
simpler sugars such as glucose.
• amylase Any of a class of digestive enzymes, present in saliva, that break down complex carbohydrates such as starch into
simpler sugars such as glucose.
• anal canal the terminal part of the large intestine, situated between the rectum and anus
• anal sphincter The sphincter (ring muscle) that surrounds the anus (anal orifice).
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The Digestive System
• antrum a bodily cavity, especially one having bony walls, especially one in the sinuses
• appendicitis inflammation of the vermiform appendix.
• appendix The vermiform appendix, an inner organ without known use that can become inflamed.
• ascites An accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, frequently symptomatic of liver disease.
• aspiration pneumonia Aspiration pneumonia is bronchopneumonia that develops due to the entrance of foreign materials into
the bronchial tree, usually oral or gastric contents (including food, saliva, or nasal secretions).
• autolyze To destroy itself; to be destroyed by its own enzymes.
• autonomic nervous system The part of the nervous system that regulates the involuntary activity of the heart, intestines, and
glands. These activities include digestion, respiration, perspiration, metabolism, and the modulation of blood pressure.
• bacterial flora Bacterial Flora is a community of bacteria that exists on or in the body, and possesses a unique ecological
relationship with the host.
• barium A metallic chemical element (symbol Ba) with an atomic number of 56.
• Barrett's esophagus An abnormal change (metaplasia) in the cells of the lower end of the esophagus thought to be caused by
damage from chronic acid exposure, or reflux esophagitis.
• bile A bitter brownish-yellow or greenish-yellow secretion produced by the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and discharged into
the duodenum, where it aids the process of digestion.
• bile A bitter brownish-yellow or greenish-yellow secretion produced by the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and discharged into
the duodenum, where it aids the process of digestion.
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The Digestive System
• biliary tract The biliary tract (or biliary tree) is the common anatomical term for the path by which bile is secreted by the liver
then transported to either the gallbladder or the first part of the small intestine, also known as the duodenum.
• bilirubin A bile pigment that is product of the breakdown of the heme portion of hemoglobin. This happens within macrophages
as they digest red blood cells. Extremely high levels of bilirubin cause jaundice.
• Blumberg sign Blumberg's sign is a sign that is elicited during physical examination in medicine and is indicative of peritonitis. A
positive sign shows rebound tenderness, meaning that pressing a hand on the abdomen elicits less pain than releasing the
hand abruptly, which will aggravate the pain, as the peritoneum snaps back into place.
• bolus A round mass of something, especially of chewed food in the mouth or alimentary canal.
• Brunner's glands Brunner's glands (or duodenal glands) are compound tubular submucosal glands found in that portion of the
duodenum which is above the hepatopancreatic sphincter (Sphincter of Oddi).
• cecum The cecum or caecum is a pouch, usually peritoneal, that is considered to be the beginning of the large intestine.
• cementum A bony substance that covers the root of a tooth; cement.
• cephalic phase The cephalic phase of gastric secretion occurs before food enters the stomach, especially while it is being
eaten.
• chemical digestion Involves the action of enzymes to break down food into components that can be absorbed by the small
intestine.
• chief cell A cell located in the stomach and parathyroid gland that secretes precursor enzymes.
• cholecystectomy The surgical procedure to remove the gall bladder.
• cholelithiasis Gallstones.
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The Digestive System
• chromoendoscopy Chromoendoscopy is a medical procedure wherein dyes are instilled into the gastrointestinal tract at the time
of visualization with fiber-optic endoscopy.
• chyme the thick, semifluid mass of partly-digested food that is passed from the stomach to the duodenum.
• chyme the thick, semifluid mass of partly-digested food that is passed from the stomach to the duodenum.
• cirrhosis A chronic disease of the liver caused by damage from toxins (including alcohol), metabolic problems, hepatitis, or
nutritional deprivation. It is characterized by an increase of fibrous tissue and the destruction of liver cells.
• coelom A fluid-filled cavity within the body of an animal. The digestive system is suspended within the cavity, which is lined by a
tissue called the peritoneum.
• cofactors A substance, especially a coenzyme or a metal, that must be present for an enzyme to function.
• colitis Inflammation of the colon or the large intestine.
• colon Part of the large intestine; the final segment of the digestive system, after (distal to) the ileum and before (proximal to) the
anus
• colonoscopy The endoscopic examination of the large bowel and the distal part of the small bowel with a fiber optic camera on
a flexible tube passed through the anus.
• colonoscopy The endoscopic examination of the large bowel and the distal part of the small bowel with a fiber optic camera on
a flexible tube passed through the anus.
• colonoscopy The endoscopic examination of the large bowel and the distal part of the small bowel with a fiber optic camera on
a flexible tube passed through the anus.
• columnar epithelium Columnar epithelia are epithelial cells whose heights are at least four times their width.
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The Digestive System
• conditioned reflex A response, to a stimulus, that has been acquired by operant conditioning.
• constipation A state of the bowels in which the evacuations are infrequent and difficult, or the intestines become filled with
hardened feces.
• defecation Act or process of voiding feces from bowels.
• dentin The hard, dense calcareous material that makes up the bulk of a tooth
• diarrhea Diarrhea is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day.
• diffusion The act of diffusing or dispersing something, or the property of being diffused or dispersed; dispersion.
• digestive enzymes Digestive enzymes are enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building
blocks to facilitate their absorption by the body.
• diverticulitis An infection of the diverticulum.
• diverticulosis The condition of having diverticula, or small pouches, formed along the mucosa of the colon.
• duodenum The first part of the small intestine, starting at the lower end of the stomach and extending to the jejunum.
• dysphagia Difficulty in swallowing.
• enamel The hard covering on the exposed part of a tooth.
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The Digestive System
• enteric nervous system A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that directly controls the gastrointestinal system.
• enteric nervous system A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that directly controls the gastrointestinal system.
• enteroendocrine cells specialized endocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract which produce hormones such as serotonin,
somatostatin, motilin, cholecystokinin, gastric inhibitory peptide, neurotensin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and enteroglucagon.
• enterogastric reflex one of three extrinsic reflexes of the gastrointestinal tract which is stimulated by the presence of acid levels
in the duodenum or in the stomach and results in the shut off of the release of gastrin from G-cells in the antrum of the
stomach.
• enterogastric reflex one of three extrinsic reflexes of the gastrointestinal tract which is stimulated by the presence of acid levels
in the duodenum or in the stomach and results in the shut off of the release of gastrin from G-cells in the antrum of the
stomach.
• enteroglucagon A peptide hormone derived from preproglucagon which is secreted from mucosal cells, primarily of the colon
and terminal ileum, following ingestion of a mixed meal to delay gastric emptying.
• epigastrium The upper middle region of the abdomen, between the umbilical and hypochondriac regions.
• epiglottis A cartilaginous organ in the throat of terrestrial vertebrates covering the glottis when swallowing to prevent food and
liquid from entering the trachea. In Homo sapiens it is also a speech organ.
• esophagus The esophagus (oesophagus) is an organ in vertebrates which consists of a muscular tube through which food
passes from the pharynx to the stomach.
• esophagus The esophagus (oesophagus) is an organ in vertebrates which consists of a muscular tube through which food
passes from the pharynx to the stomach.
• fecal occult blood (FOB) Fecal occult blood (FOB) refers to blood in the feces that is not visibly apparent.
• fecaliths a fecaloma, also called fecalith, fecolith, and coprolith, i.e., a "stone" made of feces, is a hardening of feces into lumps
of varying size inside the colon, which may appear whenever chronic obstruction of transit occurs, such as in megacolon and
chronic constipation.
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The Digestive System
• feces Digested waste material discharged from the bowels; excrement.
• foregut The anterior part of the alimentary canal of an embryo, from the mouth to the duodenum.
• gallbladder In vertebrates, a small organ that aids mainly in fat digestion and concentrates bile produced by the liver.
• gallstone A small, hard object, in the shape of a pebble, that sometimes forms in the gallbladder or bile duct; composed of
cholesterol, bile pigments, and calcium salts.
• gastric juice A secretion of the gastric glands that includes hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, and mucus.
• gastric phase The second phase of digestion which follows mastication (chewing) and takes place in the stomach.
• gastrin A hormone that stimulates the production of gastric acid in the stomach.
• gastrin A hormone that stimulates the production of gastric acid in the stomach.
• gastrin A hormone that stimulates the production of gastric acid in the stomach.
• gastritis Inflammation of the lining of the stomach, characterized by nausea, loss of appetite, and upper abdominal discomfort
or pain.
• gastritis Inflammation of the lining of the stomach, characterized by nausea, loss of appetite, and upper abdominal discomfort
or pain.
• gastrocolic reflex One of a number of physiological reflexes controlling the motility or peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract and
it involves an increase in motility of the colon in response to stretch in the stomach and byproducts of digestion in the small
intestine.
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The Digestive System
• gastrointestinal (GI) tract The human gastrointestinal tract is the stomach and intestine, sometimes including all the structures
from the mouth to the anus.
• gastrointestinal (GI) tract The human gastrointestinal tract is the stomach and intestine, sometimes including all the structures
from the mouth to the anus.
• gastrointestinal tract The human gastrointestinal tract is the stomach and intestine, sometimes including all the structures from
the mouth to the anus. (The "digestive system" is a broader term that includes other structures, including the accessory organs
of digestion).
• gingivitis Inflammation of the gums or gingivae.
• goblet cell glandular simple columnar epithelial cells whose function is to secrete mucin
• goblet cells Goblet cells are glandular simple columnar epithelial cells whose sole function is to secrete mucin, which dissolves
in water to form mucus.
• greater omentum a large fold of visceral peritoneum that hangs down from the stomach
• gut flora The microorganisms that normally live in the digestive tract of animals.
• hematochezia The presence of fresh blood in stools, often due to lower gastrointestinal bleeding.
• hepatic arteries Blood vessel supplying oxygenated blood to the liver.
• hepatic portal vein A vessel located in the abdominal cavity formed by the union of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins
that channels blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver.
• hepatitis inflammation of the liver, sometimes caused by a viral infection
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The Digestive System
• hepatocyte Any of the cells in the liver responsible for the metabolism of protein, carbohydrate, and lipid and for detoxification.
• hiatal hernia the protrusion (or herniation) of the upper part of the stomach into the thorax through a tear or weakness in the
diaphragm
• hindgut The hindgut (or epigaster) is the posterior (caudal) part of the alimentary canal. In mammals, it includes the distal third
of the transverse colon and the splenic flexure, the descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum.
• hydrolysis The degradation of certain biopolymers (proteins, complex sugars) by the chemical process that results in smaller
polymers or monomers (such as amino acids or monosaccharides)
• hyperbilirubinemia An unusually large concentration of bilirubin in the blood.
• hypertrophy An increase in the size of an organ due to swelling of the individual cells.
• hypokalemia The condition of having an abnormally low concentration of potassium ions in the blood.
• IGF IGF-1 is a hormone similar in molecular structure to insulin. It plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to
have anabolic effects in adults. A synthetic analog of IGF-1, mecasermin is used for the treatment of growth failure.
• ileum The last, and usually the longest, division of the small intestine; the part between the jejunum and large intestine.
• insoluble fiber Insoluble fiber may be metabolically inert and provide bulking or metabolically fermented in the large intestine as
a prebiotic fiber.
• intestinal wall The wall of the small intestine is composed of four layers, from the outside-inward: serosa, muscularis,
submucosa, and mucosa.
• intraperitoneal Within the cavity of the peritoneum.
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The Digestive System
• islets of Langerhans Regions in the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells.
• jaundice A yellowish pigmentation of the skin, the whites of the eyes (sclera), and other mucous membranes caused by
increased levels of bilirubin in the blood that build up in extracellular fluid, usually due to liver disease.
• jaundice A yellowish pigmentation of the skin, the whites of the eyes (sclera), and other mucous membranes caused by
increased levels of bilirubin in the blood that build up in extracellular fluid, usually due to liver disease.
• jaundice A yellowish pigmentation of the skin, the whites of the eyes (sclera), and other mucous membranes caused by
increased levels of bilirubin in the blood that build up in extracellular fluid, usually due to liver disease.
• jejunum The central of the three divisions of the small intestine which lies between the duodenum and the ileum.
• lactase a β-galactosidase enzyme that is involved in the hydrolysis of the disaccharide lactose into constituent galactose and
glucose monomers.
• lactose the disaccharide sugar of milk and dairy products, C12H22O11, (a product of glucose and galactose) used as a food
and in medicinal compounds.
• lactose intolerance the inability to fully metabolize lactose.
• lactose intolerance the inability to fully metabolize lactose.
• large intestine The second to last part of the digestive system, comprising the cecum and colon.
• lipase Any of a group of enzymes which catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids.
• lithotripsy The breaking-up of kidney stones or similar calculi (e.g. gallstones) by means of ultrasound.
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The Digestive System
• liver A large organ in the body that stores and metabolizes nutrients, destroys toxins, and produces bile. It is responsible for
thousands of biochemical reactions.
• liver disease Liver disease (also called hepatic disease) is an umbrella term referring to damage to or disease of the liver.
• lobule A subdivision of the four main liver lobes, the basic functional unit of the liver.
• lower gastrointestinal tract The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of the large intestine.
• lumen The inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine.
• lymphatic The lymphatic system carries a clear fluid called lymph, which is formed from interstitial fluid collected through the
capillaries.
• malabsorption The state arising from abnormality in digestion or absorption of food nutrients across the gastrointestinal tract.
• mechanical digestion The breaking down of food into digestible chunks, normally using the teeth.
• mesentery The membrane that attaches the intestines to the wall of the abdomen, maintaining their position in the abdominal
cavity, and supplying them with blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.
• metastasis The transference of a bodily function or disease to another part of the body, specifically the development of a
secondary area of disease remote from the original site, as with some cancers.
• midgut The midgut is the portion of the embryo from which most of the intestines develop.
• motilin A polypeptide that has a role in fat metabolism.
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The Digestive System
• mouth the opening of a organism through which food is ingested
• mucin Mucins are a family of high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins (glycoconjugates) produced by epithelial
tissues in most metazoans.
• mucous membrane A membrane that secretes mucus. It forms the lining of various body passages that communicate with the
air, such as the respiratory, genitourinary, and alimentary tracts including the mouth, nasal passages, vagina, and urethra.
• mucus A slippery secretion from the lining of the mucous membranes.
• muscularis externa The muscularis externa is a region of muscle in many organs in the vertebrate body, adjacent to the
submucosa membrane. It is responsible for gut movement such as peristalsis.
• muscularis externa The muscularis externa is a region of muscle in many organs in the vertebrate body, adjacent to the
submucosa membrane. It is responsible for gut movement such as peristalsis.
• muscularis mucosae The lamina muscularis mucosae (or muscularis mucosae) is the thin layer of smooth muscle found in most
parts of the gastrointestinal tract, located outside the lamina propria mucosae, separating it from the submucosa.
• nerve A bundle of neurons with their connective tissue sheaths, blood vessels, and lymphatics.
• NSAID Any drug of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory class used as a pain reliever.
• oblique layer This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food.
• odynophagia Severe pain in mouth or esophagus when attempting to swallow.
• orchitis A painful inflammation of one or both testes.
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The Digestive System
• palliative Minimizing the progression of a disease and relieving undesirable symptoms for as long as possible, rather than
attempting to cure the (usually incurable) disease.
• palliative Minimizing the progression of a disease and relieving undesirable symptoms for as long as possible, rather than
attempting to cure the (usually incurable) disease.
• pancreas A gland near the stomach which secretes a fluid into the duodenum to help with food digestion. The fluid contains
protease, carbohydrase and lipase, which breaks down larger molecules into smaller pieces. The pancreas also produces the
hormones insulin and glucagon which regulate blood sugar. These hormones are released into the cardiovascular system.
• pancreatic fluid Pancreatic juice is a liquid secreted by the pancreas that contains a variety of enzymes, including trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, elastase, carboxypeptidase, pancreatic lipase, and amylase.
• pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas.
• parasympathetic ganglia Parasympathetic ganglia are the autonomic ganglia of the parasympathetic nervous system; they lie
near or within (respectively) the organs they innervate.
• parotid gland Either of a pair of salivary glands located in front of, and below each ear in humans.
• passive diffusion Net movement of material from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration without any
energy input.
• peptidase Any enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptides into amino acids; a protease.
• periodontitis An inflammatory disease that affects the periodontium—the tissues that surround and support the teeth--and can
lead to tooth loss.
• periodontium The specialized tissues that both surround and support the teeth, maintaining them in the maxillary and
mandibular bones; the tissues including alveolar bone, cementum, gums, and periodontal ligament.
• peristalsis The rhythmic, wave-like contraction of both longitudinal and circular smooth muscle fibers within the digestive tract
that forces food through it.
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The Digestive System
• peritoneal dialysis A treatment for patients with severe chronic kidney disease in which fluids are exchanged from the blood in
the patient's peritoneum in the abdomen.
• peritoneum In mammals, the serous membrane lining the cavity of the abdomen and that is folded over the viscera.
• peritonitis inflammation of the peritoneum, especially when caused by an infectious organism introduced into the abdominal
cavity.
• Peyer's patches Patches of lymphoid tissue or lymphoid nodules on the walls of the ileal-small intestine.
• pharynx The part of the alimentary canal that extends from the mouth and nasal cavities to the larynx, where it becomes
continuous with the esophagus.
• pleural cavity The body cavity that surrounds the lungs and is enclosed by the pleura.
• plicae circulares The circular folds (valves of Kerckring) (also, plicae circulares / valvulae conniventes) are large valvular flaps
projecting into the lumen of the bowel.
• polyp An abnormal growth protruding from a mucous membrane.
• polysaccharide A polymer made of many saccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds.
• prodromal symptoms A prodrome is an early symptom (or set of symptoms) that might indicate the start of a disease before
specific symptoms occur.
• prostaglandin any of a group of naturally occurring lipids derived from the C20 acid prostanoic acid; they have a number of
physiological functions and may be considered to be hormones
• protease An enzyme that cuts or cleaves proteins.
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The Digestive System
• pulp chamber The dental pulp is the part in the center of a tooth made up of living connective tissue and cells called
odontoblasts.
• pyloric stenosis A narrowing of the pylorus that prevents the normal passage of food from the stomach to the small intestine.
• pyloromyotomy Pyloromyotomy (also known as Ramstedt's procedure) is a surgical procedure in which an incision is made in
the longitudinal and circular muscles of the pylorus to treat hypertrophic pyloric stenosis.
• pylorus The opening in a vertebrate, including humans, at the lower end of the stomach that opens into the duodenum.
• rectum the terminal part of the large intestine through which feces pass
• saccharolytic Breaking down carbohydrates for energy.
• saliva A clear, slightly alkaline liquid secreted into the mouth by the salivary glands and mucous glands, consisting of water,
mucin, protein, and enzymes. It moistens the mouth, lubricates ingested food, and begins the breakdown of starches.
• salivary gland any of several exocrine glands that produce saliva to break down carbohydrates in food enzymatically
• secretin A peptide hormone secreted by the duodenum that serves to regulate its acidity.
• serosa A membrane that lines an internal cavity to protect the contents and which secretes serum.
• serous membrane a thin membrane that secretes serum lining an internal body cavity, such as the peritoneum, the
pericardium, and the pleura
• sigmoidoscopy The endoscopic examination of the sigmoid colon using a fiber optic camera passed through the anus.
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The Digestive System
• sigmoidoscopy The endoscopic examination of the sigmoid colon using a fiber optic camera passed through the anus.
• small intestine the upper part of the intestine, between the stomach and the large intestine, divided into the duodenum, the
jejunum and the ileum
• soluble fiber Soluble (may be prebiotic and/or viscous) is fiber that is readily fermented in the colon into gases and
physiologically active byproducts.
• somatostatin A polypeptide hormone, secreted by the pancreas, that inhibits the production of certain other hormones.
• sphincter A ringlike band of muscle that surrounds a bodily opening, constricting and relaxing as required for normal
physiological functioning.
• Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is the development of peritonitis (infection in
the abdominal cavity) despite the absence of an obvious source for the infection.
• stomach An organ in animals that stores food in the process of digestion.
• submucosa A layer of connective tissue beneath a mucous membrane.
• sympathetic nervous system The part of the autonomic nervous system that under stress raises blood pressure and heart rate,
constricts blood vessels, and dilates the pupils.
• tiniae coli The taenia coli (also taeniae coli) are three separate longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle on the outside of the
ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons.
• tooth hard, calcareous structure present in the mouth of many vertebrate animals, generally used for eating
• trypsin A digestive enzyme that cleaves peptide bonds (a serine protease).
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The Digestive System
• upper gastrointestinal tract The upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum.
• uvula the fleshy appendage that hangs from the back of the palate, that closes the nasopharynx during swallowing
• villi Tiny, finger-like projections that protrude from the epithelial lining of the intestinal wall.
• vitamin Any of a specific group of organic compounds essential in small quantities for healthy human growth, metabolism,
development, and body function; found in minute amounts in plant and animal foods or sometimes produced synthetically;
deficiencies of specific vitamins produce specific disorders.
• zymogen A proenzyme, or enzyme precursor, which requires a biochemical change (i.e. hydrolysis) to become an active form
of the enzyme.
• zymogen A proenzyme, or enzyme precursor, which requires a biochemical change (i.e. hydrolysis) to become an active form
of the enzyme.
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The Digestive System
Hemoccult Test
This image shows slides and developer (bottle) for the Hemoccult test, a type of stool guaiac test to detect the presence of fecal occult blood.
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The Digestive System
Benign gastric ulcer
This gastric ulcer was found in tissue removed during a gastrectomy.
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The Digestive System
Parts of a Pancreas
1: Head of pancreas 2: Uncinate process of pancreas 3: Pancreatic notch 4: Body of pancreas 5: Anterior surface of pancreas 6: Inferior surface of
pancreas 7: Superior margin of pancreas 8: Anterior margin of pancreas 9: Inferior margin of pancreas 10: Omental tuber 11: Tail of pancreas 12:
Duodenum.
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The Digestive System
Micrograph of Small Intestine
Low magnification micrograph of small intestinal mucosa showing villi.
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The Digestive System
Small Intestine
This image shows the position of the small intestine in the gastrointestinal tract.
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The Digestive System
Hydrolysis by amylase
Both the parotid and pancreatic amylases hydrolyse the 1:4 link, but not the terminal 1:4 links or the 1:6 links.
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The Digestive System
Hydrolysis of peptide bond
Proteins and polypeptides are digested by hydrolysis of the C-N bond.
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The Digestive System
Digestive system
The upper GI tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum.
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The Digestive System
Neural control of the gut
An illustration of neural control of the gut wall by the autonomic nervous system and the enteric nervous system.
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The Digestive System
Head and Neck Overview
The human pharynx is situated immediately below the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the esophagus and larynx.
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The Digestive System
Inside of the mouth
llustration of the inside of a human mouth. Cheeks have been cut and lips pulled back for an unobstructed view.
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The Digestive System
General Structure of the Gut Wall
General structure of the gut wall.
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The Digestive System
Hepatitis B Virus
The hepatitis B virus is a common cause of liver inflammtion.
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The Digestive System
Mumps virus
This transmission electron micrograph (TEM) shows the ultrastructure of the mumps virus. It is a roughly spherical particle made up of layers of fatty
lipids, large protein molecules, and nucleic acids. The virus is dotted with large protein 'spikes' that enable it to gain entry to host cells. Inside lies a core
of a single, long molecule of RNA wrapped up in protein that is released into the host cell.
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The Digestive System
Small Intestine with Celiac Disease
This small intestine biopsy from a patient with celiac disease shows blunting of the villi, crypt hyperplasia, and lymphocyte infiltration of the crypts.
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The Digestive System
Hepatocytes
Cross-section of human liver showing hepatocytes.
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The Digestive System
Catabolism
A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats
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The Digestive System
Large Intestine
Scheme of large intestine, with colon marked: cecum; (1) ascending colon; (2) transverse colon; (3) descending colon; (4) sigmoid colon; rectum and
anus.
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The Digestive System
Liver tissue of an alcoholic
A healthy liver can break down alcohol. However, the overstressed liver of an alcoholic may become clogged with fats, adversely affecting liver function.
This type of tissue is most common in alcoholic hepatitis (prevalence of 65%) and alcoholic cirrhosis (prevalence of 51%).
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The Digestive System
Colon cancer
This dissected colon, showing the interior surface, exhibits one invasive colorectal carcinoma (the crater-like, reddish, irregularly shaped tumor).
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The Digestive System
Gallbladder
Image showing the parts of the gallbladder.
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The Digestive System
Digestive Processes in Large Intestine
Image shows the relationship of the colon to the other parts of the digestive system.
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The Digestive System
Bacterial Flora
Escherichia coli, one of the many species of bacteria present in the human gut
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The Digestive System
Bile Salt Action on Lipids
Bile salts congregate around fat, separating them into small droplets called micelles.
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The Digestive System
Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma
This micrograph shows the poorly differentiated glandular structures characteristic of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, the most common type of
pancreatic cancer.
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The Digestive System
The Stomach Wall
Micrograph showing a cross section of the stomach wall, in the body portion of the stomach. H&E stain.
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The Digestive System
Decayed Tooth
The upper right first premolar (tooth #5), after extraction, is shown. Because this is a "baby" tooth, the tooth was removed, but if this decay existed in a
permanent tooth, a root canal would be required. The two single-headed arrows point to the cementoenamel junction (CEJ), the line separating the
crown (in this case, heavily decayed), and the roots. The double-headed arrow (bottom right) shows the extent of the abscess that surrounds the apex of
the palatal root.
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The Digestive System
Root Canal Procedure
The diagram demonstrates endodontic therapy (colloquially known as a root canal) on an unhealthy or injured tooth: first drilling and cleaning, then filing
with an endofile, and finally adding the rubber filling and crown.
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The Digestive System
Pit and fissure caries.
The progression of pit and fissure caries resembles two triangles with their bases meeting along the junction of enamel and dentin.
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The Digestive System
Pyloric Gland
The pyloric gland, found in the stomach, secretes gastrin and other hormones.
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The Digestive System
Cardiac Gland
The cardiac gland, found in the stomach, secretes gastrin and other hormones.
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The Digestive System
Dental caries
(A) A small spot of decay visible on the surface of a tooth. (B) The radiograph reveals an extensive region of demineralization within the dentin (arrows).
(C) A hole is discovered on the side of the tooth at the beginning of decay removal. (D) All decay removed.
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The Digestive System
Deep gastric ulcer
This image, acquired via endoscope, shows a deep gastric ulcer.
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The Digestive System
Colon cancer and polyps
The interior surface of the colon shows an invasive colorectal carcinoma and two adenomatous polyps.
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The Digestive System
Positive Stool Guaiac Test
In this developed slide from the Hemoccult test to detect fecal occult blood, both square test areas in the upper area of the card show the intense blue
color of a positive result. The lower two smaller circular areas on the orange stripe are analytical control reactions, positive on the left and negative on
the right, that help assure that the card and developer bottle have been maintained in proper conditions and have not been damaged before the test is
performed.
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The Digestive System
Human Liver
Photo of recently-removed human liver.
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The Digestive System
Peristalis
The gastrocolic reflex is one of a number of physiological reflexes controlling the motility, or peristalsis, of the gastrointestinal tract.
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The Digestive System
Periodontal disease
This radiograph shows significant bone loss between the two roots of a tooth (black region). The spongy bone has receded due to infection under the
tooth, reducing the bony support for the tooth.
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The Digestive System
Vomiting
14th Century Italian illustration of a man vomiting.
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The Digestive System
Major Digestive Hormones
There are at least five major digestive hormones in the gut of mammals that help process food through chemical digestion.
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The Digestive System
Open appendectomy
An inflamed appendix may be removed through open surgery, as shown here.
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The Digestive System
The Billiary Tree
The spatial relationship between the liver, stomach, gall bladder and pancreas.
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The Digestive System
Digestive System
Upper and lower human gastrointestinal tract.
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The Digestive System
Carbohydrate Digestion
The action of small intestine oligosaccharide-cleaving enzymes
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The Digestive System
Lipid Digestion
Lipid digestion involves the formation of micelles in the presence of bile salts, and the passage of micelles and fatty acids through the unstirred layer.
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The Digestive System
Layers of stomach lining.
Stomach. (Serosa is labeled at far right, and is colored yellow. )
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The Digestive System
Gallstones in the gallbladder
This gallbladder has been opened to show numerous gallstones. The large, yellowish calculus is probably composed largely of cholesterol, while the
greenish to brownish color of the other stones suggests these are composed of bile pigments like biliverdin and stercobilin.
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The Digestive System
Digestive Hormones
Action of the major digestive hormones.
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The Digestive System
Location of the appendix
This diagram shows the location of the appendix within the digestive system.
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The Digestive System
Duodenum
The intestinal phase of digestion occurs in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine.
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The Digestive System
Development of Digestive System
Sagittal section of embryo at about four weeks showing the primitive gut.
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The Digestive System
Colon Polyp
This image taken during a colonoscopy shows a polyp (~1cm diameter) in the sigmoid colon.
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The Digestive System
Muscularis Mucosae
Muscularis Mucosae.
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The Digestive System
Fiber Sources from Plant Cells
This model of a plant cell, showing the primary and secondary cell walls, as well as a vacuole (blue), illustrates the location of the dietary fiber sources
lignin, pectin, and cellulose.
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The Digestive System
Diverticulitis
A CT scan of an infected diveticulum, known as diverticulitis.
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The Digestive System
Gingivitis
Severe gingivitis before (top) and after (bottom) treatment.
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The Digestive System
Jaundice
Jaundice, seen here as yellowing of the eyes, is often a symptom of hepatitis.
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The Digestive System
How Alcohol Affects Your Body
Chronic alcohol abuse can cause fatty liver, cirrhosis and alcoholic hepatitis.
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The Digestive System
Digestive Tract
Several aspects of the digestive tract are labeled in this cartoon.
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The Digestive System
Diverticular Disease
Diverticulosis as seen endoscopically, showing characteristic diverticula in the colon, which are outpocketings of the colonic mucosa and submucosa
through weaknesses in the muscle layers in the colon wall.
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The Digestive System
Laparoscopic appendectomy
An inflamed appendix may be removed laparoscopically, via three small incisions with a camera to visualize the area of interest in the abdomen.
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The Digestive System
Fundic Gland
The fundic gland, found in the stomach, secretes gastrin and other hormones.
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The Digestive System
Gallbladder histology
Micrograph of the layers of a gallbladder.
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The Digestive System
Child with mumps
This child with mumps displays the typical swelling of the salivary glands caused by the mumps virus.
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The Digestive System
The Biliary Tract
The liver and gallbladder are connected via the cystic duct, the liver and pancreas are connected via the pancreatic duct, and all three enter the
duodenum at the common bile duct,
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The Digestive System
Bile
Micrograph of bile (yellow material) in a liver biopsy.
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The Digestive System
Intestinal villus
Simplified structure of the villus.
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The Digestive System
Colon Biopsy
Micrograph of a colon biopsy.
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The Digestive System
Peritoneum
The peritoneum, colored in blue, is the serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity. It covers most of the intra-abdominal, supporting
them and serving as a conduit for their blood and lymph vessels and nerves. Peritonitis is an inflammation of the peritoneum often causing abdominal
pain and tenderness.
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The Digestive System
Gall Bladder
The gallbladder connects to the small intestine via the common bile duct.
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The Digestive System
Layers of the enteric nervous system
Layers of the enteric nervous system.
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The Digestive System
Hepatic Veins
Image of liver with labeled hepatic veins.
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The Digestive System
Sections of the Stomach
Diagram of the stomach, showing Cardiac region, Fundus, Body, and Pylorus.
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The Digestive System
Intestine with Whipple's Disease
This light micrograph shows the intestinal lining from a patient with Whipple's Disease, a systemic infectious disease caused by the bacterium T.
whipplei that results in malabsorption. The enlarged villi and multiple macrophages are characteristic of Whipple's Disease.
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The Digestive System
Section of Duodenum
Image shows the layers of the duodenum.
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The Digestive System
Reflux Esophagitis
Abdominal and chest x-rays may show esophagitis. The patient receives a radiocontrast die, often injected into the stomach. In this patient, the
radiocontract is quickly seen migrating upwards through the entire esophagus, demonstrating severe reflux esophagitis.
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The Digestive System
Tooth Decay in Bulimia
The erosion visible on the lower teeth was caused by bulimia, an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging, often by inducing
vomiting. The acidic components of vomit erode tooth enamel over time. For comparison, the upper teeth were restored with porcelain veneers.
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The Digestive System
Jaundice
This patient displays the yellowish skin characteristic of jaundice, in this case due to hepatic failure.
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The Digestive System
Gallstones
Numerous small gallstones, composed largely of cholesterol
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The Digestive System
Extensive periodontal disease
This section from a panoramic x-ray film depicts the teeth of the lower left quadrant, exhibiting generalized severe bone loss of 30–80%. The red line
depicts the existing bone level, and the yellow line depicts where the gingiva was originally (1–2 mm above the bone), prior to the patient developing
periodontal disease. The pink arrow, on the right, points to a furcation involvement, or the loss of enough bone to reveal the location at which the
individual roots of a molar begin to branch from the single root trunk; this is a sign of advanced periodontal disease.
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The Digestive System
Types and Causes of Jaundice
This flow chart depicts many of the types and possible causes of jaundice.
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The Digestive System
Dietary Fiber Functions and Benefits
Table shows the functions and benefits of soluble and insoluble dietary fiber.
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The Digestive System
Cross section of the head and neck
Cross section of the head and neck showing the structures of the mouth.
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The Digestive System
The pyloris
This diagram shows the location of the pylorus in relation to the stomach.
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The Digestive System
Upper and lower gastrointestinal tract
The major organs of the human gastrointestinal system.
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The Digestive System
Peptic Stricture
This endoscopic image of peptic stricture, or narrowing of the esophagus near the junction with the stomach, is a common complication of chronic
gastroesophageal reflux disease. Peptic stricture can be a cause of dysphagia or difficulty swallowing.
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The Digestive System
Gastric ulcer
This endoscopic image shows a gastric ulcer, which upon biopsy was shown to be gastric cancer.
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The Digestive System
Small Intestine
The midgut is the portion of the embryo from which most of the intestines develop. The hindgut (or epigaster) is the posterior (caudal) part of the
alimentary canal.
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The Digestive System
Bacterial flora
Escherichia coli is one of the many species of bacteria present in the human gut.
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The Digestive System
Healthy Small Intestine
This light micrograph shows a healthy small intestine for comparison to those with Whipple's or celiac disease.
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The Digestive System
Layers of stomach lining.
Stomach. (Serosa is labeled at far right, and is colored yellow. )
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The Digestive System
General Structure of the Gut Wall
General structure of the gut wall.
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The Digestive System
Hepatic Portal Circulation
Diagram showing the hepatic portal vein and its territory.
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The Digestive System
Small Intestine
This image shows the position of the small intestine in the gastrointestinal tract.
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The Digestive System
Sigmoid Colon
Large bowel (sigmoid colon) showing multiple diverticula on either side of the longitudinal muscle bundle (Taenia coli).
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The Digestive System
Neural control of the gut
An illustration of neural control of the gut wall by the autonomic nervous system and the enteric nervous system.
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The Digestive System
Pancreatic Fluid
Schematic diagram showing pancreatic acini and ducts where fluid is created and released.
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The Digestive System
General Structure of the Gut Wall
General structure of the gut wall
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The Digestive System
Human Feces
Note the mucus coating and bits of partially undigested food.
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The Digestive System
Pancreas
Image shows the location of the pancreas relative to other organs.
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The Digestive System
Defecation Reflex
Conscious and parasympathetic pathways of defecation reflex.
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The Digestive System
Digestive Enzymes
Table of digestive enzymes.
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The Digestive System
Section of duodenum
Section of duodenum with villi at the top layer.
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The Digestive System
GI Tract X-ray
This x-ray after barium swallow shows the effects of eosinophilic esophagitis.
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The Digestive System
The organs of the gastrointestinal tract
This diagram shows the relationship between the various organs of the digestive system.
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The Digestive System
The sympathetic and parasympathetic aspects of the autonomic nervous system
The ANS affects heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, salivation, perspiration, pupillary dilation, micturition (urination), and sexual arousal. Whereas
most of its actions are involuntary, some, such as breathing, work in tandem with the conscious mind.
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The Digestive System
Lactose
Lactose, a disaccharide of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose, is normally broken down by the enzyme lactase into its component monosaccharides.
Individuals who suffer from lactose intolerance have insufficient levels of lactase to break down the lactose in milk and dairy products.
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The Digestive System
Progression of Pancreatic Cancer
These micrographs show the progression of changes in the pancreas due to cancer, from normal pancreas, to pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia
(precursors to pancreatic cancer), and finally pancreatic cancer.
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The Digestive System
The Liver
The liver, hepar, is a vital organ present in vertebratesand some other animals. It has a wide range of functions, includingdetoxification, protein
synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary fordigestion.
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The Digestive System
Digestion: Gastric Phase
During the gastric phase, gastrin is secreted. The stomach stretches and churns while enzymes break down proteins.
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The Digestive System
Peritoneum
The peritoneum illustrated, indicated by blue.
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The Digestive System
Substructures of the Peritoneum
The epiploic foramen, greater sac or general cavity (red) and lesser sac, or omental bursa (blue).
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The Digestive System
The Peritoneum and the Kidney
Sagittal section through posterior abdominal wall, showing the kidney residing outside the peritoneum.
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The Digestive System
Attribution
• Wiktionary. "bile." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bile
• Wikipedia. "Bile." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bile
• Wiktionary. "epigastrium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epigastrium
• Wikipedia. "Pancreas." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas
• Wikipedia. "Pancreas." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas
• Wiktionary. "alimentary canal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alimentary+canal
• Wiktionary. "mouth." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mouth
• Wikipedia. "alveolar arch." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alveolar%20arch
• Wiktionary. "saliva." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/saliva
• Wiktionary. "mucous membrane." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mucous+membrane
• Wikipedia. "Mouth." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/diffusion
• Wikipedia. "plicae circulares." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plicae%20circulares
• Wikipedia. "villi." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/villi
• Wikipedia. "Absorption (small intestine)." CC BY-SA 3.0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(small_intestine)%23Absorption
• Wiktionary. "polysaccharide." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polysaccharide
• Wiktionary. "anal sphincter." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anal+sphincter
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The Digestive System
• Wiktionary. "feces." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/feces
• Wikipedia. "Digestion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion%23Large_intestine
• Wikipedia. "Large intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_intestine
• Wiktionary. "small intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/small+intestine
• Wiktionary. "duodenum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/duodenum
• Wiktionary. "jejunum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jejunum
• Wiktionary. "ileum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ileum
• Wikipedia. "Jejunum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jejunum
• Wikipedia. "Small intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestine
• Wikipedia. "Duodenum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duodenum
• Wikipedia. "Ileum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ileum
• Wiktionary. "barium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barium
• Wikipedia. "gastrointestinal (GI) tract." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gastrointestinal%20(GI)%20tract
• Wiktionary. "hematochezia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hematochezia
• Wikipedia. "Upper GI series." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_GI_series
• Wiktionary. "lactose intolerance." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lactose+intolerance
• Wiktionary. "zymogen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zymogen
• Wikipedia. "Chemical digestion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_digestion%23Protein_digestion
• Wiktionary. "lumen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lumen
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The Digestive System
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_gastrointestinal_system
• Wikipedia. "Gastrointestinal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal
• Wiktionary. "hepatocyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hepatocyte
• Wikipedia. "Gallbladder." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallbladder%23Microscopic_anatomy
• Wikipedia. "Hepatocytes." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatocytes
• Wikipedia. "Regeneration (biology)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)%23Liver
• Wiktionary. "hindgut." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hindgut
• Wiktionary. "midgut." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/midgut
• Wiktionary. "foregut." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/foregut
• Wikipedia. "Human gastrointestinal tract." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract
• Wikipedia. "colitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/colitis
• Wikipedia. "passive diffusion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/passive%20diffusion
• Wikipedia. "bacterial flora." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bacterial%20flora
• Wikipedia. "Large Intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Intestine%23Bacterial_flora
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/esophagus
• Wiktionary. "stomach." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stomach
• Wiktionary. "large intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/large+intestine
• Wikipedia. "Digestive System." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_System%23Upper_gastrointestinal_tract
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/esophagus
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The Digestive System
• Wiktionary. "peristalsis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peristalsis
• Wiktionary. "mucus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mucus
• Wikipedia. "Esophagus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophagus
• Wikipedia. "Greater omentum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_omentum
• Wiktionary. "intraperitoneal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intraperitoneal
• Wiktionary. "peritoneum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peritoneum
• Wiktionary. "serous membrane." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/serous+membrane
• Wikipedia. "mesentery." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mesentery
• Wikipedia. "Peritoneum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneum
• Wikipedia. "Peritoneum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneum%23Structure
• Wikipedia. "Peritoneum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneum%23Clinical_aspects
• Wikipedia. "Peritoneum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneum%23Classification_of_abdominal_structures
• Wiktionary. "chyme." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chyme
• Wiktionary. "gastric juice." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gastric+juice
• Wiktionary. "bolus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bolus
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• Wiktionary. "enteric nervous system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enteric+nervous+system
• Wiktionary. "sympathetic nervous system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sympathetic+nervous+system
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The Digestive System
• Wikibooks. "Medical Physiology/Gastrointestinal Physiology/Principles of GI function." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wiktionary. "sigmoidoscopy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sigmoidoscopy
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• Wiktionary. "gastrointestinal tract." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gastrointestinal+tract
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• Wiktionary. "chemical digestion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chemical+digestion
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• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wiktionary. "enamel." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enamel
• Wiktionary. "dentin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dentin
• Wiktionary. "cementum." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cementum
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The Digestive System
• Wikipedia. "Dental caries." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_caries
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• Wiktionary. "pancreatitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pancreatitis
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• Wiktionary. "appendix." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/appendix
• Wiktionary. "colon." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colon
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• Wiktionary. "bile." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bile
• Wiktionary. "liver." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/liver
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/gallbladder
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The Digestive System
• Wikipedia. "Gallbladder." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallbladder
• Wikipedia. "Liver." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver
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The Digestive System
• Wikipedia. "Pancreas." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas
• Wikipedia. "digestive enzymes." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/digestive%20enzymes
• Wikipedia. "Small intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestine
• Wiktionary. "gallstone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gallstone
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• Wiktionary. "chyme." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chyme
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• Wikipedia. "Large intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_intestine
• Wiktionary. "uvula." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/uvula
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The Digestive System
• Wiktionary. "adenoid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adenoid
• Wiktionary. "epiglottis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epiglottis
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/lymphatic
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/parasympathetic-ganglia
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The Digestive System
• Wikipedia. "Chemical digestion." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_digestion
• Wikibooks. "Structural Biochemistry/Cell Signaling Pathways/Digestive System." CC BY-SA 3.0
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mones
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• Wiktionary. "somatostatin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/somatostatin
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• Wikipedia. "Stomach." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach
• Wiktionary. "cofactors." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cofactors
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/upper-gastrointestinal-tract
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/lower-gastrointestinal-tract
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The Digestive System
• Wikipedia. "Digestive System." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_System%23Upper_gastrointestinal_tract
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• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_gastrointestinal_system%23The_Digestive_System
• Wiktionary. "sphincter." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sphincter
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• Wikipedia. "intestinal wall." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/intestinal%20wall
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• Wiktionary. "tooth." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tooth
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• Wikipedia. "pulp chamber." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pulp%20chamber
• Wiktionary. "abscess." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abscess
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• Wikibooks. "Medical Physiology/Gastrointestinal Physiology/Principles of GI function." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wiktionary. "gingivitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gingivitis
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• Wiktionary. "alkalosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alkalosis
• Wiktionary. "hypokalemia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypokalemia
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• Wikipedia. "aspiration pneumonia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/aspiration%20pneumonia
• Wikipedia. "Vomiting." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomiting
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• Wikipedia. "Enteric nervous system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system
• Wikibooks. "Medical Physiology/Gastrointestinal Physiology/Principles of GI function." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wikipedia. "Gastric acid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric_acid
• Wikipedia. "Stomach." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wiktionary. "peptidase." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peptidase
• Wiktionary. "amylase." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amylase
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• Wikibooks. "Medical Physiology/Gastrointestinal Physiology/Digestion & Absorption." CC BY-SA 3.0
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on
• Wiktionary. "bilirubin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bilirubin
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• Wiktionary. "hyperbilirubinemia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hyperbilirubinemia
The Digestive System
• Wikipedia. "Jaundice." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaundice
• Wiktionary. "pleural cavity." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pleural+cavity
• Wiktionary. "serosa." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/serosa
• Wiktionary. "coelom." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coelom
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• Wikipedia. "Serosa." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serosa
• Wikipedia. "Gastrointestinal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal
• Wiktionary. "amylase." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amylase
• Wiktionary. "trypsin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trypsin
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/lipase
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• Wikipedia. "Electrolytes." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytes
• Wikipedia. "Digestion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion
• Wikibooks. "Medical Physiology/Gastrointestinal Physiology/Digestion & Absorption." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wiktionary. "cholecystectomy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cholecystectomy
• Wiktionary. "lithotripsy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lithotripsy
• Wiktionary. "cholelithiasis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cholelithiasis
• Wikipedia. "Gallstones." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallstones
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/oblique-layer
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/tiniae-coli
• Wikipedia. "muscularis externa." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/muscularis%20externa
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_gastrointestinal_system
• Wikipedia. "Gastrointestinal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal
• Wikipedia. "Muscularis mucosae." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscularis_mucosae
• Wikipedia. "Hiatal hernia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiatal_hernia
• Wiktionary. "Barrett's esophagus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Barrett's+esophagus
• Wiktionary. "dysphagia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dysphagia
• Wiktionary. "odynophagia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/odynophagia
• Wikipedia. "Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Disease
• Wiktionary. "prostaglandin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prostaglandin
• Wiktionary. "NSAID." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/NSAID
• Wiktionary. "gastrin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gastrin
• Wiktionary. "gastritis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gastritis
• Wikipedia. "Peptic ulcer disease." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptic_ulcer_disease
• Wikipedia. "insoluble fiber." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/insoluble%20fiber
• Wikipedia. "soluble fiber." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/soluble%20fiber
• Wikipedia. "Dietary Fiber." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_Fiber
• Wikipedia. "alcoholic liver disease." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alcoholic%20liver%20disease
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The Digestive System
• Wikipedia. "alcohol dehydrogenase." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alcohol%20dehydrogenase
• Wikipedia. "Gastric bypass surgery." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric_bypass_surgery
• Wikipedia. "Blood alcohol content." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_alcohol_content%23Metabolism_and_excretion
• Wikipedia. "Long-term effects of alcohol." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longterm_effects_of_alcohol%23Digestive_system_and_weight_gain
• Wiktionary. "diverticulosis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diverticulosis
• Wiktionary. "diverticulitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diverticulitis
• Wiktionary. "colonoscopy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colonoscopy
• Wikipedia. "Diverticular disease." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diverticular_disease
• Wiktionary. "palliative." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/palliative
• Wiktionary. "sigmoidoscopy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sigmoidoscopy
• Wiktionary. "colonoscopy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colonoscopy
• Wikipedia. "Colorectal Cancer." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorectal_Cancer
• Wiktionary. "peritoneal dialysis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peritoneal+dialysis
• Wikipedia. "Blumberg sign." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blumberg%20sign
• Wikipedia. "Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP)." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous%20bacterial%20peritonitis%20(SBP)
• Wikipedia. "Peritonitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritonitis
• Wiktionary. "salivary gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/salivary+gland
• Wiktionary. "parotid gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/parotid+gland
• Wikipedia. "prodromal symptoms." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/prodromal%20symptoms
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The Digestive System
• Wiktionary. "orchitis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/orchitis
• Wikipedia. "Mumps." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumps
• Wiktionary. "pancreas." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pancreas
• Wikipedia. "Pancreas." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas
• Wiktionary. "saccharolytic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/saccharolytic
• Wiktionary. "gut flora." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gut+flora
• Wiktionary. "vitamin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vitamin
• Wikipedia. "Large Intestine." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Intestine%23Function_and_relation_to_other_organs
• Wikipedia. "Gut flora." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_flora
• Wikipedia. "jaundice." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jaundice
• Wiktionary. "gastritis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gastritis
• Wikipedia. "Malabsorption." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabsorption
• Wikipedia. "Gastritis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastritis
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/Development: birth through death." CC BY-SA 3.0
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/Development:_birth_through_death%23Digestive_System
• Wikipedia. "Periodontal disease." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodontal_disease
• Wikipedia. "Loss of taste." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_taste
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