Transcript christianity

Rise of Islam
- In 610, Muhammad had a revelation that he was the next and last prophet, and
Islam was born. Christians and Jews do not accept Muhammad as a prophet.
- Islam united the Arabs and spread extremely quickly. All of Northern Africa, Persia,
Spain, and much of the Byzantine Empire became Muslim-ruled by 750.
- Resolved in 787, an iconoclast debate turned violent…many said that the spread
of Islam was punishment for continuing to break the second commandment (making
idols of God).
- As a result, the power and influence of the Byzantine Empire weakened. In Europe,
the only unifying thing in the West now is the Catholic Church.
- The Byzantines would continue to be significant as a civilization through the
middle ages, but would steadily decline until only Constantinople remained. In 1453,
Constantinople itself was conquered by the Ottoman Turks (Muslims), and that would
be the end of the Byzantine Empire. Moscow, Russia would become the “Third Rome”
after Constantinople fell.
Holy Roman
Empire
- The Church allied with the Franks (Germany/France), and this would set up an
ongoing struggle between Church vs. state power.
- Pepin was made king of the Franks by the pope after Pepin conquered
north/central Italy and gave lands to the pope, which would last until 1870.
- Charlemagne was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” on Christmas, 800. The
Byzantines were outraged since now there were 2 Christian emperors.
- Charlemagne spread Christianity through much of Europe through 20 years of
warfare.
- Otto the Great (r. 962-973) was the first Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman
Empire would include Italy, and Central Europe/Germany (it was not very unified for
much of its history), and would last until the early 1800s.
- By the year 1000, all of the Vikings became Christian, which effectively stopped all
other major religions taking place in Europe.
The Dark Century
- The time around the 900s = “Dark Century” for the Church. Lots of corruption plagued the Church.
- Pope Formosus (r. 891-896) was dug up from the dead, put on trial, found guilty, had 3 fingers taken
off (blessing fingers) and the corpse was thrown into the Tiber River (corpse grabbed by monk).
- Cardinals became like a senate for the pope. Starting in 1059 they selected the next pope.
Investiture Controversy
- The investiture controversy (10751122) was a contest between the
Church and kings over control of
appointments of church officials.
- Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073-85) had a
dispute with Holy Roman Emperor
Henry IV. Henry was excommunicated,
trekked to the pope’s winter residence
in Canossa, and begged for forgiveness
for three days. Gregory finally forgave
him.
- Later, Gregory would excommunicate
Henry again for violating their
agreement, Rome would be sieged, and
Gregory would have to flee Rome.
Rome was plundered for three days
but was liberated by the Normans.
Gregory died in exile and never
forgave Henry.
East/West Schism
East/West Schism: In 1054, the pope and the patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other. This was
the first major split in Christianity.
- Disagreements included: whether the pope is the authority or not (still #1 hurdle), progressive alienation of
cultures, and some theological differences.
- Catholicism: more psychological, disciplinary, and ethical issues. Guilt, atonement, confession, forgiveness,
sacraments, Church order are all more “Catholic.”
- The Crusades (off and on from 1095-1272), were a united Christian effort to take back the Holy Land. Still, this
failed to bring both sides together again. Some say that both sides were too greedy for power, others say that
the sack of Constantinople in 1204 (city sacked by Christian crusaders who were later excommunicated) sealed
the schism’s fate for good.
THE CRUSADES
Fight for the Holy Land
- Jerusalem is an important Holy City for Jews,
Christians, and Muslims. This land area is referred to as
"The Holy Land."
- Muslims conquered this area from the Byzantine
Empire in 636 A.D. Later, the Seljuk Turks (also
Muslims) took the territory, and furthermore banned all
Jewish and Christian religious rights in Jerusalem.
- Once this news was spread to Europe, Pope Urban II
called for a "Crusade" to take back the Holy Land for
Christians in 1095 A.D. Also, the Byzantines were under
constant attack by the more powerful Muslims and
needed help.
Pope Urban II’s Reasons for the
First Crusade
(Council of Clermont, Nov. 27, 1095 A.D.)
1) It was a Christian's duty to regain the Holy Land.
2) The Church wanted to further influence/control the Eastern
Orthodox Church, and expand his power. This motive has been
hotly debated over the years.
3) The pope saw this as a way to have the knights fight for
something worthwhile (as opposed to each other).
Reasons why Knights Fought in
the Crusades
1) Christian obligation to fight.
2) Gain wealth/land (especially knights who did not inherit an
estate).
3) Adventure.
4) Way to be cleansed of previous sins (forgiveness promised on
First Crusade!)
THE PEOPLE'S CRUSADE
(a.k.a. The Peasants’ Crusade, 1096)
- Peter the Hermit was a preacher who
crisscrossed the French countryside on his
donkey, convincing many people to come to
the Holy Land. By 1096 A.D., five divisions of
commoners embarked to the Holy Land.
- The peasants arrived hungry, tired, and
aimless in Constantinople in July 1096. The
Byzantine Emperor, wanting to get rid of
them, sent them into Turkey. Sadly, almost all
of the peasants were killed by the Muslim
Turks, and their bodies were piled up to rot
as a warning to future Crusaders.
FIRST CRUSADE (1095-1099); Battle in Antioch
- In 1096, the knights of Europe set
out for the Holy Land.
- In 1099, the Crusaders of Europe
won an important battle in the city
of Antioch.
- When the Crusaders conquered the
city, they were quickly surrounded by
Muslims.
- Things were desperate: the
Crusaders were cut off from food,
water, and were under constant
siege...at that point, a knight "found"
the lance that pierced Jesus' side on
the cross, and the knights viewed it
as a sign from God. The knights
rallied and broke the siege.
Jerusalem Captured, 1099
- After Antioch (and after other battles), the Crusaders marched on Jerusalem.
The Turks had been fighting the Egyptians for decades over this city, so at the
moment they were weaker than normal militarily.
- Once they took the city, the knights went on a rampage and murdered tens
of thousands (70,000 estimated) of innocent people - mostly Muslims - to
"cleanse" the city of non-Christians. A thriving city was mostly destroyed.
- Despite all this, the Christian Europeans had won the first Crusade in 1099
A.D., and set up three outposts in Antioch, Tripoli, and Edessa.
- The Crusaders'
territory was
constantly under
attack after the
First Crusade
contested. As a
result, Europeans
built huge
fortifications for
protection.
- Despite this, the
Muslims re-captured
Edessa in 1144. As
a result, the Second
Crusade was
proclaimed.
- There was an
attempt to take
Damascus, but it
failed. The
Europeans went
home in defeat.
THE SECOND CRUSADE (1147-1149)
Saladin
- Saladin is known as a heroic and brilliant leader for the Muslims during the time of the second and third Crusades.
- He is from present-day Iraq with Kurdish ancestry. He was a devout Sunni Muslim.
- In 1185, he declared a jihad (can be translated to a Muslim Holy War) to win the Holy Land back for the Muslims, and did it in 1187.
- Saladin was very realistic and chivalrous. After the Third Crusade, he opened up Jerusalem to Christians again and was respected by
both sides.
THE THIRD CRUSADE (1189-1192 A.D.)
- The fall of Jerusalem shocked Europe. It is said that Pope Urban III died of shock.
- The king of England - Richard the Lionhearted, King of France - Philip II, and the Holy Roman EmperorFrederick Barbarossa, created new taxes (nicknamed the "Saladin tithe") to help finance the future crusade.
- On his march, Fredrick accidentally drowned in a river and died. Most of the Germans went home as a result.
- Richard and Philip joined forces and took the important city of Acre in 1191. They were constantly bickering.
- After the siege, Philip left for France. Richard tried to take Jerusalem 4 times, but failed each time to Saladin.
- At one point, Richard offered his sister to marry Saladin's brother to create a neutral Jerusalem, but it never
worked out because Richard's sister refused to take part in the plan. Later, Richard was kidnapped for 2 years,
and an enormous tax was collected to free him (his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine helped).
- Richard died in 1199 by a crossbow bolt (he was in a hurry and not wearing armor).
- Richard, despite enjoying a positive historical reputation, in fact offered to sell England, bankrupted its economy,
built a huge castle after being ransomed (taken in 6 years by the French), never won a Crusade, and could not
speak English.
Eleanor of Aquitaine, mother of English kings
Richard and John, and married both a French
king and later the English king. Her court was
very pro-chivalry and encouraged courtly love.
THE FOURTH CRUSADE (1202-1204 A.D.)
- The Fourth Crusade was a disaster, and it would be the final straw in the separation between the Christian
East and West.
- Troops were told they were going to Jerusalem, but instead they were going to Egypt. Once this secret got out,
2/3 of the troops deserted, and they were so broke they could not pay to sail from Venice to the Holy Land.
- Instead, the Crusaders took over Zadar in Hungary - a Christian kingdom - for money! Enrico Dandolo, blind
and in his nineties, was the matron, and he wanted to use it to trade with Egypt, Venice's most profitable trade
partner. Pope Innocent III excommunicated the 12,000 Crusaders.
- Next, the Crusaders were bribed to remove the Byzantine emperor (another Christian) on behalf of the son of
the deposed Byzantine emperor. They did the job, but were not paid as promised, so they ended up taking over
and looting Constantinople! This divided Eastern and Western Christians for good, and gave Venice control of trade
in that area, 3/8 of Constantinople, and 3/8 of the Byzantine Empire. They lost control of this in 1261.
CRUSADES in EUROPE
Albigensian Crusade (a.k.a. Cathar Crusade; 1209-1229) was in France to defeat the Cathar sect who believed that the
spirit world was good and the earthly world as evil. Tens of thousands were killed, and the sect was stamped out.
The Reconquista (711-1492) drove Islam out of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal) to reconquer it for Christians.
- Spain finally drove out all Muslims in 1492, and also kicked all Jews out the same year. Ironically, for much of this
time in most of Spain, it was very tolerant to all religions, much more so than in the rest of Europe.
THE CHILDREN'S CRUSADE (1212 A.D.)
TRADITIONAL/LEGEND VERSION:
- Thousands of children in France and Germany, who believed their piety and innocence would be enough to take over Jerusalem, marched
there in 1212.
- Many died crossing the Alps and had a dreadful time getting to Italy, which is where they planned to cross the Mediterranean (they thought
the sea would part for them to get to Jerusalem).
- Dishonest merchants instead put the children on ships that sailed to North Africa, and the children were all sold into slavery.
MODERN INSIGHT/SPECULATION:
- There were 2 movements: one in Germany and one in France.
- The Germans were led by a shepherd named Nicolas, and some now think that the children dispersed when the Mediterranean Sea did not
part for them, and experienced a variety of fates.
- The French group was led by a 12 year-old boy Cloyes who claimed to have a letter from Jesus that was for the King of France. King Philip
II ordered the crowd to go home.
- Many now think that the group consisted of adults and young adults, not children. There is a question of whether the "children" part of
the story was really slang for "peasants."
THE FIFTH CRUSADE
(1217-1221 A.D.)
- Again, the plan was to capture Egypt and
then Jerusalem.
- After an early victory in Damietta, Egypt,
the Crusaders suffered greatly from the heat
and lots of Muslim resistance. Also the Holy
Roman Emperor, Frederick II, promised knights,
but they did not show up.
- Instead of fighting longer, the Crusaders
signed an 8 year truce. They were supposed to
get the true cross back, but they did not get it
because the Muslims “lost” it.
THE SIXTH CRUSADE (1228-1229 A.D.)
- In an effort to regain his pride for not helping out as he promised,
Frederick II single-handedly set out with his troops to the Holy Land
in 1227. On the way, he got sick, so he had to delay his attack.
- When Pope Gregory IX heard this, he excommunicated Frederick.
- Despite this, Frederick set off again in 1228. Gregory proclaimed
that no Christian should help Frederick, so Frederick lost all support.
- Amazingly, Frederick negotiated with the Muslims won control of
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth. The pope still refused to accept
the treaty!
- Frederick crowned himself king of Jerusalem in 1229 with only a
few of his loyal men. When he left, the city was taken over again by
the Muslims in 1244.
THE SEVENTH CRUSADE (1248-1254 A.D.)
- Again, an Egypt-first plan was drawn to re-take the Holy Land.
- Disastrously, the Crusaders' leader, Saint Louis IX of France, was captured in Egypt in 1250. Louis IX paid a huge sum
of money (approx. the entire yearly revenue of France) for his ransom in exchange for freedom. After this the French
king sailed back home.
THE EIGHTH CRUSADE (1270 A.D.)
- By now, the Mongols were defeated
in some key areas by the Muslims.
Emboldened, Muslims attempted to
systematically wipe-out all of the
Christians in the area.
- King Louis IX again invaded, this
time he went to Tunisia first. His
campaign failed - he thought he had
an ally in Tunisia but he did not.
During this time, King Louis and his
troops got ill and died.
- Louis ignored his advisors and
attacked during very hot weather.
THE NINTH CRUSADE
(1271-1272 A.D.)
- The Ninth Crusade, sometimes lumped with the Eighth
Crusade, was the last Crusade, and most of the Crusading
spirit by this time was gone.
- The goal was to team up with Louis IX and conquer
Acre, but since Louis IX went to Tunis instead and died, by
the time Prince Edward of England showed up it was over.
- Later, the French pulled out of the campaign, yet in
1271 Prince (later King) Edward went to Acre anyway with
a small amount of troops (around 1,000). He eventually
met up with a few more small allies.
- Edward's support was not enough to make much of a
difference, and the Crusaders were forced to give up their
attempt in 1272. About a month later, Prince Edward
became King Edward I of England, and was known as
"Longshanks" because of his height (6'2'').
The Significance of the Crusades
- Overall, the Muslims dominated the Crusades despite European
knights uniting for a common cause.
- The Crusades further united the Muslims and gave them
confidence. They left a bad impression of Europeans.
- The end of the Crusades foreshadowed a lessening of the
power of the Church and the rise of countries/secular power in
Europe.
- Trade benefited: European and Middle Eastern traders set up
several new trading areas.
- Medieval Europe learned much from the Muslim world:
cleanliness, medicine, universities, translated ancient texts, and
military improvements all were learned from the Muslim world.
- The Europeans were still much more divided than Muslims in
terms of politics and religion.
- The papacy during Medieval Europe was very
powerful – by its end the Church owned more land
and had more money than any single European
country, and all Europeans were Catholic Christians.
- Pope Innocent III (r.1198-1216) was arguably the
most powerful pope (and person in Europe) during
this time. He called for Crusades both in the Holy
Land and within Europe to stamp out heretics, was
anti-Judaism, and even excommunicated King John of
England at one point.
- Despite being brilliant, Innocent III’s Church was
also filled with corruption, greed, and nepotism.
The Church was fully “Romanized” at this time
(Kung):
Centralization: pope = absolute monarch
Legalization: Canon Law (Christian law) = centered
on pope
Politicization: sinful people subservient to pope,
including kings
Militarization: Holy Wars (Crusades, others) were
fought
Clericalization: clergy = organized, also
celibate/forbidden to marry since 1139
Medieval Papacy Dominates
St. Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) a Dominican and
theological professor, was one of the most
significant Christian thinkers of the era, and
many of his beliefs became widely accepted.
- Believed that nature should be studied so
we can understand the mind of God. It meant
that science is not necessarily against religion.
- Believed that faith trumps reason, and also
the scripture should be taken literally. Also
supported the papacy.
- Believed that women were “failed men” and
increased scorn for women resulted.
- Believed that everything has a cause so
there must be One Big Cause of Everything –
hence “God”
Medieval Christianity (1/2)
- By the High Middle Ages, the Church became the largest
landowner in Europe. Each town’s church was often the tallest
building, and its bells signaled the time as well as when to meet.
- There was an ongoing struggle between the Church and the
heads of state (i.e. king). Canon law vs. secular law…often Canon
law was seen as superior.
- Seven sacraments were required to go to heaven: baptism,
communion, confirmation, marriage, penance, last rites, Holy
Orders were all performed by priests who were usually paid for
their services.
- Fridays were for fasting, Sundays were the Sabbath (prayer and
rest day). There were about 100 Christian holidays on the
calendar, and in some places people went to mass every day.
- 10% tithe = Church tax, still common today
- Marianism, a cult of the Virgin Mary, climaxed in the 1000s and
1100s. Some saw her as queen of heaven, and a champion for
the poor/downtrodden people in the world.
Medieval Christianity (2/2)
- Many believed that Judgment Day would occur in 1033 (in the
Bible it refers to Satan being locked up for 1,000 years).
Thousands made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and were confused
when nothing happened.
- In the 1230s, Pope Gregory IX created “Inquisitors.” These men
answered only to the pope and could find and punish heretics.
Torture (okay after 1252), secret testimonies, denial of legal
counsel, etc. were all used as methods in inquisitions.
- Jews suffered at times. Many saw their diaspora as God’s
punishment. Some Jews were bankers who practiced usury (loans
with interest) which was considered a sin for Christians, and this
led to accusations of greed. In 1215, many Jews had to wear
yellow labels. France and England expelled all Jews in 1290,
Spain in 1492, and many other places expelled them as well.
Jews were almost always in the minority, which hurt their
political power.
- Muslims were not as prominent in Europe (except notably in
Spain for a time), but Muhammad was viewed as a fraud and
often as a pervert.
- Despite its problems, the Church provided direction in life,
chivalry, art, cathedrals (including the Notre Dame in Paris),
festivals, education (monopoly until universities began in Europe
in the 1200s), and did a lot of good for a lot of people.
- Corruption increased in the later Middle Ages, and
in an indirect way it helped give rise to more
nunneries, who were usually more honest.
- Simony (bribes for clergy positions) and bribes,
were problems. In the 1000s a Gregorian Reform
Movement attempted to stop it but was not totally
successful.
- The pilgrimage business was big; sacred relics and
sites attracted people. Eventually you could pay the
church “if you could have gone” and advertisements
awarding days of free-pardons, etc. were advertised
to attract pilgrims!
- Other examples of corruption in monasteries: living
in “hospitals” so each monk could have a fireplace in
his room, using a sign language to talk over dinner
since speaking was not allowed at meals, huge
alcohol and meat consumption, some churchmen even
took part in brothels
Corruption in Monasteries
Crisis in the 1300s
- Overall, the Church remained powerful throughout the 1300s but
went through a lot of problems.
Avignon Papacy (a.k.a. Avignon Papacy, 1309-1378): In 1303, Pope
Boniface VIII was arrested and imprisoned by the French king! This
was a huge statement of state vs. Church power. The successor pope
was enthroned in Lyons, France (not Rome), and then moved to
Avignon. During this time, the popes were dependent on the French
king, lots of corruption.
- Universities and a rising middle class both helped in the opposition
of papal authority. Partially as a reaction to this, papal infallibility
(pope is never wrong) was declared in the early 1300s but taken
away in 1324. It was later introduced in 1870 and is still the rule
of the Church.
The Great Schism (a.k.a. Western Schism or Papal Schism, 1378-1418)
was a dispute about who was the real pope – now 2 people
claimed to be the pope (Avignon vs. Rome)! At one point 3 claimed
to be pope. Finally, one pope (Rome) was declared the real pope.
- The Black Death (1348-50) killed about 1/3 of Europe, including a
disproportionately large amount of people in the clergy (2/3 died;
clergy helped sick and gave last rites, etc.). The Church remained
wealthy in power, money, and land, but was short on people, and
this led to corruption in its aftermath. The Avignon pope was
surrounded by fire (thought the disease was due to bad air), so he
lived.