Transcript Normative Science - HCC Learning Web

Chapter 17
Science, the
Environment,
and Society
Lecture PowerPoint
© W. W. Norton & Company, 2008
Science and Society
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Sociologists of science look at the interactions
between science and society.

A paradigm is the framework within which
scientists operate. There are particular paradigms
for particular branches of scientific research.
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Science and Society
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Normative Science
 Notion that science is unaffected by the personal
beliefs or values of scientists but rather follows
objective rules of evidence.
 In practice, however, social factors such as funding
availability, government policies (which in turn can
be affected by interest groups), and international
pressure or competition can affect choices about
what scientific research is pursued.
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Science and Society

Thomas Kuhn theorizes that scientific revolutions,
also called paradigm shifts, occur when enough
anomalies accrue during the practice of normal
science to challenge the existing paradigm.
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Boundary work refers to research conducted on the
border between legitimate and nonlegitimate science
either within a specific scientific discipline or
between disciplines.
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Science and Society
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Anthropologists Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar
claim that scientific facts don’t just reveal
themselves through experiments and research but
are socially constructed as scientists debate
findings, discuss results, and work through
disagreements, all of which is influenced by unequal
power relations between researchers.
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Science and Society
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The Matthew effect, a term coined by Robert
Merton, refers to the notion that certain scientific
results get more notice and have more influence
based on the existing prestige of the researchers
involved.
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Agriculture and the Environment
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The majority of scientists agree that the roots of
global warming can be linked to human activity
such as deforestation and the burning of coal, gas, and
oil.
At the same time, global warming is predicted to
have a strong impact on human society, primarily
through devastating natural disasters such as
prolonged heat waves, more and bigger hurricanes,
and debilitating droughts.
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Agriculture and the Environment
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The term “organic” is often used as a catchall for
foods that are seemingly healthy, “natural,” or
produced on a small scale. In the United States
there are specific guidelines that have to be
followed in order for food products to be labeled
“organic” or “made with organic ingredients.”
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Agriculture and the Environment
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The organic food market creates stratification in two
ways:
 Because it is expensive to maintain an organic farm,
many smaller farmers are essentially priced out of the
organic farm market, which allows megafarms to
dominate the market and use their influence to change
policies and guidelines to their advantage.
 Because organic products are more expensive, highincome individuals are much more likely to purchase
them and reap their benefits than low-income people.
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Agriculture and the Environment
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Genetically modified foods, also referred to as genetically
modified organisms or GMOs.
 They are products whose genetic structures have been
altered, usually to make them produce higher yields.
 Proponents argue that GMOs help bring down food
prices, reduce dependence on pesticides and herbicides,
reduce waste, and can even provide vitamin and
mineral content that may be missing from a
population’s diet—all of which is particularly
significant for developing countries.
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Agriculture and the Environment
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Ulrich Beck developed the concept of the risk society and
identified two main categories of risks: external risks and
manufactured risks.
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A risk society is a society that is concerned with mitigating
risks, particularly manufactured risks that are unequally
distributed by socioeconomic status and other dimensions
of power.
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Agriculture and the Environment
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Critics of GMOs argue that they create risks to the
environment and human health that have not been
adequately evaluated.
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Charles Perrow argues that disasters resulting from
manufactured or natural risks are inevitable but that
society can and should reduce the impact of such
risks [through wise policy choices].
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Agriculture and the Environment
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The green revolution refers broadly to two
agricultural trends of the twentieth century: the
introduction of high-yield crop varietals in
developing countries and improvements in
agricultural technologies such as irrigation
systems, fertilizers, and pesticides.
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Agriculture and the Environment
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The green revolution is widely credited with
increasing agricultural productivity throughout the
developing world:
 Increasing incomes
 Increasing the value of formal schooling
 Making farming more of a collective,
community endeavor
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Agriculture and the Environment
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Critics of the green revolution argue that it makes
farmers more dependent on a smaller number of crops.
 This exposes them to risks if those crops fail,
reduces the variety in their diet, and depletes the
soil of nutrients.
 It puts a great deal of pressure on water resources
and has altered traditional water management
techniques.
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Biotechnology and the Human Genome
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The goal of the Human Genome Project was to
identify and map all of the genes in human DNA.
Researchers involved in the project recognized
that it raised many social, ethical, and legal issues.
Among the social issues raised are concerns about
privacy, stratification, and stigmatization.
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Biotechnology and the Human Genome
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DNA testing is now marketed for a variety of purposes,
one of which is to determine a person’s racial origins.
 However, there are still questions about the accuracy
of the testing and how this information might be
used.
 DNA testing is not simply a straightforward
scientific process but one that is closely intertwined
with social factors.
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Biotechnology and the Human Genome
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Reproductive cloning involves making a genetic
copy of an existing person or organism.
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Research cloning involves making a genetic copy
of cells that can be used for research purposes.
Human cloning does have potential benefits, but it
is fraught with legal, ethical, and moral questions.
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Concept Quiz
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1.
__________ can be defined as the theoretical framework
that orders the way a scientist, or any type of researcher,
approaches his or her work.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Normative science
Paradigm
Normal science
Paradigm shift
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Concept Quiz
2. Which of the following statements about organic foods is
true?
a) They are generally sold within a few hundred miles of where
they are produced.
b) They are lower in fat than nonorganic foods.
c) They must contain 100% organic products in order to be
labeled organic.
d) They do not contain genetically modified ingredients.
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Concept Quiz
3. Which of the following is an example of an external risk?
a)
b)
c)
d)
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An accident at a nuclear power plant
A parasite that attacks wheat crops
A bridge that collapses
Surging oil prices that affect domestic car sales
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Concept Quiz
4. The green revolution has been credited with ______ in
developing countries.
a)
b)
c)
d)
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reducing the tide of rural immigrants that flood big cities
reducing the demand on water resources
helping food production keep pace with population growth
increasing the amount and variety of nutrients consumed by
populations
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Concept Quiz
5. Reproductive cloning involves _______.
a) making a genetic copy of an existing person or organism
b) providing genetically identical organs for people who need
transplants
c) making a genetic copy of stem cells for research
d) helping same-sex and infertile couples have biological
children
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Concept Quiz
6. The digital divide refers to __________.
a) the difference between the number of people who have
computers in their home and the number of people who do
not
b) stratification in information technology between countries
c) the frequency with which people can access the Internet
d) unequal access to and knowledge of information technology
based on socioeconomic status
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Figure 17.1 | Variations of Earth’s Surface
Temperature for the Past 140 Years
Figure 17.2 | Demographics of U.S.
Internet Users, 2007 (pt. 1)
Figure 17.2 | Demographics of U.S.
Internet Users, 2007 (pt. 2)
Figure 17.3 | Global Internet Usage,
2007