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America: Pathways to the Present
Chapter 6
The Origins of American Politics
(1789–1820)
Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved.
America: Pathways to the Present
Chapter 6: The Origins of American Politics (1789–1820)
Section 1: Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s
Section 2: The Election of 1800
Section 3: The Jefferson Administration
Section 4: Native American Resistance
Section 5: The War of 1812
Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved.
Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s
• What was Alexander Hamilton’s program
for dealing with national and state debt?
• How did foreign policy issues divide
Americans?
• What issues led to the emergence of
political parties?
America’s 1st President
• Washington took the
office of office as the
republic’s first
President on April
30, 1789 having
received the votes of
all 69 electors.
Politics in a Age of Passion
• Washington’s inaugural address “expressed the
revolutionary generation’s conviction that it had
embarked on an experiment of enormous historical
importance whose outcome was by no means certain.”
• “American leaders believed that the success of the new
government depended, above all, on maintaining
political harmony. They were especially anxious to avoid
the emergence of organized political parties, which had
already appeared in several states…Nonetheless, national
parties quickly arose…”
Washington Establishes Precedents
Creating the Cabinet (Executive
Departments)
Building a Federal Court System
Addressing America’s Financial Problems
Hamilton Has a Plan
Hamilton’s Overriding Goal: Making America an
Economic and Military Superpower
Hamilton’s Plan: A summary
• Hamilton’s plan had four main features.
• 1. Pay the national debt at full face value. (The new federal government
would issue near interest-bearing bonds and pay them off plus interest over
many years.)
• 2. Assume all state debts. The federal government would also assume all
the debts owed by the states. Those who held the state debts would also be
issued new federal bonds.
• [The immediate goal of Hamilton was to establish the credit of the new
American nation and ensure the loyalty of bondholders – who tended to be
wealthy - to the new government.]
• 3. Establish a protective tariff (tax on imports) and excise tax on whiskey to
raise finds for the government to pay for its needs and pay on it’s debt.
• 4. Establish a national bank which could hold tax deposits, issue paper
money, and issue credit to entrepreneurs hoping to create new businesses.
***
Hamilton’s Program: What were the goals of Alexander Hamilton’s plan for
dealing with the national and state debts? What impact did his plan have on
national politics?
• “Alexander Hamilton’s immediate aims were to establish the
nation’s financial stability, bring to the government’s support
the country’s most powerful financial interests, and encourage
economic development. His long-term goal was to make the
USA a major commercial and economic power…The goal of
national greatness, he believed, could never be realized with
weak government.” Hamilton favored a strong central
government which promoted industry and commerce. Political
divisions arose from opponents, such as Jefferson and
Madison who wanted a central government with very limited
powers and who favored agricultural interests . (GML, pgs.269270)
Alexander Hamilton
• Alexander Hamilton
viewed the United States
as “a Hercules in the
cradle.”
• In order for this future
superpower to grow it was
essential for a strong central
government, a prosperous
economy dominated by
industry and commerce, and
a strong military.
Hamilton
• Alexander Hamilton viewed the United States
as “a Hercules in the cradle.”
• However, without “energetic government” America
could never mature; in fact America could be snuffed
out in its infancy by more powerful countries. He
also saw the necessity of a large standing army and
strong navy. Military power was necessary to back
and promote economic power. Hamilton also
believed that when the wealthy prosper the nation
prospers.
Thomas Jefferson Leads the
opposition to Hamilton
• Thomas Jefferson argued against
Hamilton in Cabinet meetings.
Jefferson feared “energetic
government”, industrialization, and
large standing armies. He also
believed that Hamilton’s plan,
especially creation of the national
bank, would favor the North.
Jefferson also did not believe the
Constitution allowed creation of the
bank. America’s future lay in a small
government which promotes the
individual liberties of its citizens by
staying out of their way.
Thomas Jefferson Leads the opposition to
Hamilton
• Jefferson did feel that government could promote
greater liberty by making land and access to education
available to all. (Although he never followed through on
the latter.) Jefferson believed that the welfare of the
common farmer, artisan, and laborer should be the
objective of government. He believed that liberty was
best promoted when ordinary people were left alone to
succeed. His philosophy could be summed up this way:
“The government that governs least, governs best.”
• Differences between Hamilton and Jefferson led to the
emergence of the first political parties in the USA.
Opposition to Hamilton
Against Hamilton: Jefferson, Madison and
the South – but not Washington
Hamilton Favors Creation
of a National Bank
Hamilton also saw the
creation of a national
bank as a vital part of
his overall strategy to
make the United States
a major economic and
commercial power.
He believed that
Congress had the
authority to charter the
bank under “implied
powers.”
• The First Bank of the USA
Implied Powers
• Hamilton argued that the
Constitution gave the federal
gov’t the power to make laws
that were necessary for it to
execute its responsibilities. (Art.
I, Section 8, Clause 18)He argued
that this created implied powers
– powers not explicitly listed in
the Constitution, but necessary
for it to do its job.
• Hamilton’s loose interpretation
of the Constitution also allows
for the growth of gov’t power.
How powerful should the national government
be?
Hamilton favors “energetic
government”
• “For Hamilton, the first Treasury Secretary, the supreme threat to liberty
arose from insufficient government power. To avert that, he advocated a
vigorous central government marked by a strong President, an
independent judiciary and a liberal reading of the Constitution.”
“As the first Secretary of State, Jefferson believed that liberty was
jeopardized by concentrated federal power, which he tried to restrict
through a narrow construction of the Constitution. He favored states'
rights, a central role for Congress and a comparatively weak judiciary.”
Read more:
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1Py9CYgsL
Let’s Make a Deal
New Taxes, New Protest
Politics in an Age of Passion
•
“Originating in Congress, [parties] soon spread to the general
populace. Instead of harmony, the 1790s became, in the
words of one historian, an ‘age of passion,’ with each party
questioning the loyalty of the other and lambasting its
opponent in the most extreme terms. Political rhetoric
became inflamed because the stakes seemed so high –
nothing less than the legacy of the Revolution, the new
nation’s future, and the survival of American freedom.” (GML,
p.269)
Alexander Hamilton’s Vision
• “Political divisions first surfaced over the financial plan
developed by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton.
Hamilton’s immediate aims were to establish the nation’s
financial stability, bring to the government’s support the
country’s most powerful financial interests, and encourage
economic development. His long-term goal was to make the
USA a major commercial and economic power…The goal of
national greatness, he believed, could never be realized with
weak government.” (GML, pgs.269-270)
Competing Visions
• Alexander Hamilton viewed the
United States as “a Hercules in
the cradle.”
• However, without “energetic
government” America could
never mature; in fact America
could be snuffed out in its infancy
by more powerful countries.
Hamilton also saw the necessity
of a large standing army and
strong navy. Military power was
necessary to back and promote
economic power.
• Thomas Jefferson feared
“energetic government” and large
standing armies. America’s future
lay in a small government which
promotes the individual liberties
of its citizens. Government could
promote greater liberty by
making land and access to
education available to all.
(Although he never followed
through on the latter.)
•
•
•
•
As Treasury Secretary, Alexander Hamilton was responsible for developing an economic
program that would help repay the huge debts incurred during the Revolution. Hamilton
called America a “Hercules in the cradle.” America had great potential, but only if our
government was strong.
In 1790, Congress approved Hamilton’s plan to allow the federal government to take
responsibility for debts acquired by individual states.
Southern states resisted this plan at first, since they did not want to help pay back the loans
owed by northern states. However, Hamilton won southern support by promising to locate
the nation’s new capital in the South.
By assuming states’ debt, the federal government indirectly increased its strength.
Since creditors now had an interest in the United States, not just individual states,
they would help ensure that the new nation did not collapse.
Hamilton’s Program: What was Alexander Hamilton’s plan for
dealing with the national and state debts?
Hamilton’s Strategy and Opponents
•
•
•
Hamilton’s Strategy
To raise money to pay off debts,
Congress created: (1) a tax on whiskey
and (2) a tariff, or a tax on imported
goods.
Rather than pay off all debt at once,
the United States paid interest, an
extra sum of money that borrowers
pay creditors in return for loans.
Hamilton called for: (3) a national bank
justifying its creation on a loose
construction of the Constitution. That
is, he believed that the government
could take any action that the
Constitution did not forbid as long as it
was “necessary and proper.”
Hamilton’s Opponents
• Many Americans disliked Hamilton’s
plan for the national government to
take over state loans, viewing it as
interference in state affairs. Many
also disliked Hamilton’s new taxes.
• Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson
was particularly opposed to
Hamilton’s plans. Jefferson favored a
strict construction of the
Constitution, believing that the
government should not take any
actions other than those specifically
called for in the Constitution.
The Birth of Political Parties
• “By the mid 1790s, two increasingly coherent parties has
appeared in Congress calling themselves Federalists and
Republicans. Both parties laid claim to the language of liberty,
and each accused its opponents of engaging in a conspiracy to
destroy it.” (GML, p.274)
• Rival newspapers also appeared in most cities.
• “Inspired by the Jacobin clubs of Paris, supporters of the French
Revolution and critics of the Washington administration in 1793
and1794 formed nearly fifty Democratic-Republican societies.
The Republican press publicized their meetings, replete with
toasts to French and American liberty.”
• “Federalists saw the societies as another example of how liberty
was getting out of hand…” (GML, p.277
The Democratic-Republican Societies
• The partisanship of the 1790s expanded
the public sphere and the democratic
content of American freedom. It
increased the number of citizens who
attended political events and read
newspapers. Ordinary men never before
active in politics wrote pamphlets and
organized political meetings.
The Impact of the French
Revolution
• “Political divisions began over
Hamilton’s financial program, but
they deepened in response to events
in Europe. When it began in 1789,
nearly all Americans welcomed the
French Revolution…That changed in
1793 when the Revolution took a
more radical turn with the execution
of King Louis XVI along with
numerous aristocrats, and war broke
out between France and Great
Britain.”
The Impact of the French Revolution
“Events in France became a source of bitter conflict
in America. Jefferson and his followers believed that
despite its excesses the Revolution marked a historic
victory for the idea of popular self-government,
which must be defended at all costs…To Washington,
Hamilton, and their supporters, however, the
Revolution raised the specter of anarchy in America.
“ (GML, p.273)
•In 1789, Americans were divided by
the French Revolution.
•Federalists worried about the anarchy and
public executions. Hamilton feared
Democratic Republicans might want to do
the same in America.
•Jefferson decried the violence but publicly
admired the French Revolution’s principles.
The French Revolution and War in Europe
Divides Americans
• The French Revolution sharply divided Americans.
Federalists saw the French Revolution as a
democratic revolution gone wrong. Supporters of
Jefferson, however, viewed it as an extension of the
American Revolution.
• The political split grew more intense in 1793, when
the French ambassador to the United States,
“Citizen” Edmond Genêt, tried to convince private
Americans to fight with the French against the
British.
•Americans worried about the British and
French war as most of America’s imports and
tariff revenue came from British goods.
•President
Washington
issued a
proclamation
of neutrality
in 1793.
•But Britain
ignored him
and began
seizing
American
trading ships
at sea.
•Americans
were
outraged but
powerless to
respond.
•Washington
sent John Jay
to London in
1794 to
negotiate.
• The resulting Jay’s Treaty was
narrowly approved by the
Senate. Federalists praised it,
but Democratic Republicans
attacked it.
• Britain agreed to give up forts
on American soil, but
Americans had to repay preRevolutionary War debts still
owed to Britain.
• Restrictions remained on
American shipping, which
angered many Americans.
The Whiskey Rebellion
• In western Pennsylvania and other frontier areas, many people
refused to pay the new tax on whiskey. In addition to being a
popular beverage, whiskey was one of the only products made
out of corn that farmers could transport to market without
having it spoil.
• The resulting Whiskey Rebellion followed in the tradition of
Shays’ Rebellion and protests against the Stamp Act. Rebels
closed courts and attacked tax collectors.
• President Washington and Secretary Hamilton saw the Whiskey
Rebellion as an opportunity to demonstrate the power of the
United States government. An army sent to the Pittsburgh area
soon dissolved the rebellion, demonstrating the United States’
commitment to enforcing its laws.
Whiskey Rebellion: Don’t
Mess with the Federal Gov’t!
• President Washington and
Secretary Hamilton saw the
Whiskey Rebellion as an
opportunity to demonstrate
the power of the United
States government. An army
sent to the Pittsburgh area
soon dissolved the rebellion,
demonstrating the United
States’ commitment to
enforcing its laws.
What issues led to the emergence of
political parties?
• Two political parties began to emerge in the new nation as
divisions over Hamilton’s financial program and Washington’s
foreign policy widened. A political party is a group of people
who seek to win elections and hold public office in order to
shape government policy and programs.
• Disagreement over Hamilton’s financial plan split Congress into
two sides. Newspaper editors also took sides. In 1793-1794
many supporters of the French Revolution and critics of the
Washington administration formed nearly 50 DemocraticRepublican societies. These political clubs began endorsing
candidates for state and national office. With these
endorsements, these societies were becoming a political party.
The same thing happened with supporters of the Federalist
positions.
What issues led to the emergence of
political parties?
• The Federalists formed one of these parties. The other,
composed of critics of the Federalists, were called
Republicans or (Democratic-Republicans) because they
stood for a more democratic republic. To avoid
confusion, historians call them the Jeffersonian
Republicans.
 Both parties laid claim to the language of liberty, and
each accused its opponent of trying to destroy it.
 To the Federalists, true liberty required order, which
required strong government power. The DemocraticRepublicans believed government power threatened
personal liberty. True liberty meant limited government.
WashElection
• President Washington chose not to run for a third term in
1796. With the nation politically divided, the election of 1796
was close. The Federalists won a narrow victory, making John
Adams the second President. Jefferson, who finished second
in the electoral vote race, became the new Vice President.
• In his Farewell Address of 1796, Washington drew on his years
of experience and offered advice for the young nation in the
years ahead. He warned against competing political parties
and advocated a foreign policy of neutrality.
Which man (Hamilton or Jefferson)and which party
(Fed. or Rep.)would have agreed with, or supported
the following?:
• “The government that governs least, governs best.”
• The rich should rule. Average citizens cannot be trusted with
political power.
• The Constitution should be interpreted loosely. Congress
requires additional powers to do what is “necessary and
proper” for carrying out its expressed powers. These
additional powers are called “implied powers.”
Federalist or Jeffersonian Republican?
• A strong national government poses a threat to individual
liberty.
• The nation needs a national bank. The Congress has the
power to create one if it feels it is necessary and proper.
• The nation requires a strong national government to protect
our liberty from internal and external threats.
• The nation’s economy should be based on agriculture
(agrarianism), not manufacturing, commerce, and banking.
“Those who labor in the earth (toil in the soil) are the chosen
people of God.”
Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s—
Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 1
Which of the following best describes Hamilton’s plan for dealing with debt?
(A) All states’ debt would be forgiven.
(B) Every state would pay back its own debt.
(C) The United States would take responsibility for state debts.
(D) Only southern states would have to repay their debts.
What was the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion?
(A) It led to support of Hamilton’s economic programs.
(B) It provided an opportunity to demonstrate the power of the United States
government.
(C) It led to the emergence of two political parties.
(D) It inspired the United States to join the war between France and Britain.
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Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s—
Assessment
Which of the following best describes Hamilton’s plan for dealing with debt?
(A) All states’ debt would be forgiven.
(B) Every state would pay back its own debt.
(C) The United States would take responsibility for state debts.
(D) Only southern states would have to repay their debts.
What was the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion?
(A) It led to support of Hamilton’s economic programs.
(B) It provided an opportunity to demonstrate the power of the United States
government.
(C) It led to the emergence of two political parties.
(D) It inspired the United States to join the war between France and Britain.
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Federalists v. Jeffersonian Republicans: What were the ideas of
the first two political parties?
Federalists
• Favored a strong national
government. They believed that
in order for nations to thrive they
required strong governments to
provide domestic order and ward
off foreign threats. Liberty was
threatened by domestic disorder
or foreign threats, both of which
more likely with weak central
authority.
• Supported a loose interpretation
of the Constitution (Article I,
Section 8, Clause 18: The
“necessary and proper clause” /
the “elastic clause”
Jeffersonian-Republicans
• Believed in Jefferson’s view that
“the government that governs
least, governs best.” The greatest
threat to individual liberty was a
strong central government. Most
government functions should
remain with state and local
governments, closer to the
people.
• Supported a strict interpretation
of the Constitution (they feared a
liberal reading of the Constitution
could result in the national
government gaining all kinds of
illegitimate powers)
The Election of 1800
• What actions did John Adams take as
President?
• Why was the election of 1800 a turning point?
• What was significant about the transfer of
power between parties in 1801?
John Adams Takes Office
• At the beginning of the Adams
administration, the United
States was drifting toward war
with France.
• The United States sent officials
to France to negotiate. These
officials were met by three
secret agents: X, Y, and Z, who
demanded a bribe and a loan
to France.
The XYZ Affair and the Quasi-War with
France
• The U.S. officials refused
to pay the bribe and
were met with public
acclaim for their
patriotism upon their
return home.
• This XYZ affair infuriated
Americans, resulting in
what amounted to an
undeclared naval war
with France.
Crushing Dissent
• The Federalists took advantage of the
war crisis to push important new
measures through Congress. These
included the Alien and Sedition Acts
of 1798.
• Under the Alien Act, the President
could imprison or deport citizens of
other countries living in the United
States.
• Under the Sedition Act, persons who
wrote, published, or said anything
“false, scandalous, and malicious”
against the American government
could be fined or jailed.
Alien and Sedition Acts
 The most controversial act of the Adams administration
was the Alien and Sedition Acts, passed by a Federalistdominated Congress in 1798. The acts made it harder
for immigrants to become naturalized citizens and
allowed the deportation of immigrants deemed
“dangerous” by federal authorities, moves meant to
silence immigrant radicals who supported the
Republicans and the French. They also authorized the
prosecution of any assembly or publication critical of
the government. This was meant to allow federal
authorities to suppress Republican newspapers
attacking the Adams administration and its policies.

A “Reign of Witches”
• Jefferson, referring to the Salem witch trials,
believed these acts inaugurated a “reign of
witches.” More than a dozen individuals were
charged with sedition, many of whom were
convicted, including Matthew Lyons, a
Republican member of Congress.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
• Instead of squelching the opposition, the Alien and Sedition
Acts provoked more of it by making an issue out of free
speech. Madison and Jefferson drafted resolutions to be
passed by the Virginia and Kentucky legislatures. Both
criticized the acts as violations of the First Amendment.
• The original draft of Jefferson’s resolution asserted that
states could unilaterally stop the enforcement of such laws
within their borders (nullification)—but the Kentucky
legislature deleted this passage before passing its resolution.
• While many Americans were repelled by the idea that states
could refuse to follow federal laws, more Americans believed
the Alien and Sedition Acts violated protections for free
speech enshrined in the Constitution.
•
Increasing Tensions
• Jefferson, James Madison, and other Republicans believed that
the Sedition Act violated the constitutional protection of
freedom of speech.
• These men responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts with the
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. The resolutions called the
Sedition act unconstitutional. Madison, who wrote the Virginia
Resolution argued that the federal courts should nullify the law.
Jefferson asserted in the Kentucky Resolution that states
should be able to nullify federal laws which they felt were
unconstitutional.
• Tensions between Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans
continued to grow during the late 1790s.
Increasing Tensions: Prosser’s
Failed Slave Rebellion
• Enslaved African Americans, although barred from
participation in the political system, embraced the
discussions of liberty going on around them. In
1800, a blacksmith named Gabriel Prosser and
several other slaves in the area around Richmond,
Virginia attempted a slave revolt. Prosser’s smallscale rebellion failed before it could get underway.
Chapter 6, Section 2
Adams Loses Federalist Support
• Adams angered many Federalists when he sought a peaceful
solution to the undeclared naval war with France. Federalists
such as Alexander Hamilton were in favor of a harsher policy
toward France, including a declaration of war.
• Adams entered the election of 1800 with several disadvantages.
First, when the United States made peace with France, the
Jeffersonian Republicans’ support for France became less of a
rallying point for the Federalists. Also, the unpopular Alien and
Sedition Acts became even less justified without the threat of
imminent war.
• Adams’s bid for re-election was further damaged when Aaron Burr, the
Jeffersonian Republican nominee for Vice President, obtained and printed a
damaging pamphlet against Adams written by Hamilton.
The Campaign and Jefferson’s Victory
The Campaign
• By 1800, Thomas Jefferson
emerged as the leader among
those who preferred local to
national government.
• Jefferson ran against Adams in
what became a nasty
presidential campaign.
• Jefferson’s campaign accused
Adams of being a monarchist.
Adams’s campaign claimed
that Jefferson would lead the
nation into chaos.
Jefferson’s Victory
• Jefferson won the popular vote but
did not win a majority in the
electoral college. He tied with his
vice presidential running mate,
Aaron Burr.
• As specified in the Constitution, the
House of Representatives voted to
choose the President. Voting was
deadlocked until the House elected
Jefferson on its thirty-sixth ballot.
• Jefferson’s victory was aided by the
support of his usual nemesis
Hamilton, who preferred Jefferson
over Burr.
Chapter 6, Section 2
A Peaceful Transfer of Power
• Jefferson took the oath of office on March 4,
1801, amid the construction of the nation’s
new capital.
• The Federalists peacefully stepped down and
allowed the Jeffersonian Republicans to take
power. In doing so, they proved that the
American system of government was
receptive to peaceful transfers of power.
The Election of 1800—Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 2
What did the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions provide?
(A) They declared a naval war with France.
(B) They prohibited false or malicious speech against the government.
(C) They allowed the President to deport citizens of other countries.
(D) They allowed those two states to nullify unconstitutional federal laws.
Which of these was a disadvantage to John Adams in the election of 1800?
(A) Tensions with France continued.
(B) The Alien and Sedition Acts remained unpopular.
(C) The District of Columbia was under construction.
(D) A slave revolt led by Gabriel Prosser failed.
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The Election of 1800—Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 2
What did the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions provide?
(A) They declared a naval war with France.
(B) They prohibited false or malicious speech against the government.
(C) They allowed the President to deport citizens of other countries.
(D) They allowed those two states to nullify unconstitutional federal laws.
Which of these was a disadvantage to John Adams in the election of 1800?
(A) Tensions with France continued.
(B) The Alien and Sedition Acts remained unpopular.
(C) The District of Columbia was under construction.
(D) A slave revolt led by Gabriel Prosser failed.
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The Jefferson Administration
• How did Jefferson reduce the power of the
national government?
• What problem did Jefferson have with the federal
courts?
• How did Jefferson achieve his program in the
West?
• Why did Jefferson easily win reelection in 1804?
• How did Jefferson respond to increasing tensions
with Europe?
Thomas Jefferson as President
• Jefferson once wrote, “What is practicable
must often control theory.” In light of this
statement assess Jefferson’s actions as
president. How much of his policies can be
explained by his philosophy of government?
How much by compromise with what was
practicable? In your opinion, did any of
Jefferson’s actions reflect hypocrisy or
expediency, rather than pragmatism (doing
what was practicable or possible)?
A New Era
Jefferson as President
• Jefferson entered office
with a straightforward
agenda, or list of things that
he wanted to accomplish.
His goal was to reduce the
influence of the national
government in the lives of
the American people.
Remember, it was Jefferson
who said: “The government
that governs least, governs
best”.
Chapter 6, Section 3
Reducing Government
• To limit the size and power of the federal government,
Jefferson reduced taxes and severely cut the size of the
federal bureaucracy,, the departments and workers that make
up the federal government.
• He also reduced the size of the army to just over 3,000 men.
• Jefferson did not intend to destroy the government created by
the Constitution, or even to undo all the acts of the
Federalists. He let the Bank of the United States continue to
function, knowing that its term would run out in 1811.
John Marshall Defines the Role of the
Supreme Court
The Marshall Court
Judicial Review
The Judicial Branch Has the Final Say
Jefferson and the Courts
The Judiciary
Acts
The Constitution did not fully explain the organization or the role of the judicial
branch. Congress filled in the missing details with the Judiciary Acts of 1789
and 1801. These acts created a national court system headed by the Supreme
Court. The Supreme Court would settle differences between state and federal
laws.
Adams
Appoints
Judges
Just before he left office, Adams appointed judges to federal courts who would
be sympathetic to Federalist views. The appointment of these midnight judges
angered Jefferson, who wanted to appoint judges from his own party.
Marbury v.
Madison
The historic case of Marbury v. Madison (1803) arose when Jefferson tried to
deny the appointments of some midnight judges. Chief Justice John Marshall
ruled that it was against the Constitution for the Supreme Court to order the
executive branch to let appointee William Marbury take his judicial office.
Judicial
Review
In this ruling, the Court established the power of judicial review, in which courts
decide whether or not laws are constitutional. It also allows federal courts to
review state laws and state court decisions to make sure they are
constitutional. In this way, the Court plays an important role in preserving the
federal union.
Mr. Jefferson Wants More Land for American
Farmers, However….
Jefferson “Buys” Louisiana, But Violates His
Own Principles
Chapter 6, Section 3
Jefferson’s Program in the West
The Land Act
of 1800
Napoleon and the
French
The Louisiana
Purchase
The Lewis and Clark
Expedition
Under the Land Act of
1800, Americans were
able to buy land in the
western territories in
small parcels and on
credit. This
encouraged the
development of the
frontier.
When the French
ruler Napoleon took
over Spanish land in
the West, the French
began demanding
large sums of money
from American
traders passing
through New Orleans.
Jefferson sent James
Monroe and Robert
Livingston to France
to buy the city of New
Orleans.
Napoleon offered not
just New Orleans, but
the entire French claim
of Louisiana instead.
Monroe and Livingston
quickly offered $15
million for the
Louisiana Purchase.
The purchase
dramatically increased
the size of the United
States and its national
debt.
Congress agreed to
fund an expedition to
explore the
Louisiana Purchase.
The two-year-long
Lewis and Clark
expedition was
successful in filling
in many of the
details of these vast
lands.
The Louisiana Purchase
•
• Jefferson was even prepared to ally with Britain if Napoleon
refused to sell New Orleans.
• Jefferson saw the Louisiana Purchase as his greatest
achievement, and yet his view was highly ironic given its origins
and character. Acquired by France in 1800, the vast Louisiana
territory, stretching from the Mississippi to the Rocky
Mountains, was purchased by Jefferson for the very small sum of
$15 million. But it was sold only because the Haitian Revolution,
which Jefferson detested, had defeated an overtaxed French
military and Napoleon needed funds for campaigns in Europe.
Americans were happy to secure the port of New Orleans, thus
ensuring a previously precarious right to freely trade on the
Mississippi.
The Louisiana Purchase
• Though Jefferson doubled the nation’s size and ended
France’s presence in North America, the Federalists
opposed the purchase as wasteful. Jefferson believed
Louisiana ensured the survival of the agrarian
republic of small and independent, virtuous farmers.
Jefferson, a strict constructionist, also acknowledged
that the Constitution nowhere gave the president the
right to take this kind of action without approval from
Congress.
• Was this expediency, hypocrisy, or pragmatism?
•
The Louisiana Purchase
Lewis and Clark Explore
Incorporating Louisiana
• Soon after purchasing Louisiana, Jefferson dispatched two fellow
Virginians, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, to explore it. They were to
conduct scientific and commercial surveys in order to find ways to exploit
the region’s resources, develop trade with Indians, and find a commercial
route to the Pacific Ocean that could foster trade with Asia. In two years
Lewis and Clark traveled all the way to the Pacific (reaching it in the area
of today’s Oregon) and back. Though they did not find a commercial route
to Asia, their success reinforced the belief that America’s territory would
one day extend to the Pacific Ocean.
•
Incorporating Louisiana
• Incorporating Louisiana, especially the city of New
Orleans, was not easy. It had multiple legal and
cultural traditions begun there by the Spanish and
French. Slaves in New Orleans under these regimes
had some limited rights. But even though the treaty
said the United States would recognize all previous
rights and legal customs, the rights of slaves and
blacks were severely circumscribed once the United
States took over.
Incorporating Louisiana
 The Louisiana Purchase showed that, despite being far
removed from Europe, events across the Atlantic world deeply
affected the United States. Because the United States
depended on many goods, especially manufactured goods,
from Europe, the wars there directly influenced Americans’
livelihoods. Jefferson hoped to avoid becoming entangled in
Europe’s wars, but ultimately he could not ignore these
struggles. Jefferson, who wanted a diminished central state,
used the military to fight the nation’s first war, a war to protect
commerce in the Mediterranean.
The Election of 1804
• Although the Federalists were a strong force in national politics, they
began to lose support. They opposed the widely popular Louisiana
Purchase, and farmers in the new lands in the South and West tended to
support Jeffersonian Republicans.
• Jefferson’s Vice President, Aaron Burr, was infuriated when Alexander
Hamilton ruined his bid for the Federalist nomination in the New York
governor’s race. This was not the first time that Hamilton had prevented
Burr from scoring a political victory, and Burr challenged him to a duel.
After killing Hamilton in this duel, Burr found his political career ruined.
• Jefferson’s popularity, combined with a weakened Federalist Party, led to
his landslide victory in the 1804 election.
The Barbary Wars
• In North Africa, the Barbary states had long preyed on
European and U.S. shipping, although they refrained from
attacking ships if a nation paid a hefty tribute. When Jefferson
refused demands that the United States increase its tribute, a
war between the Barbary states and the United States
started, lasting until 1804. The treaty ending the war ensured
the freedom to ship freely in the Mediterranean and nearby
Atlantic oceans.
•
Renewed War in Europe and an
Embargo
• When war between France and Britain resumed in 1803, each
nation imposed a blockade to deny the other’s trade with the
United States, which was officially neutral. The British also
engaged in the impressment of American sailors, essentially
kidnapping them for service in the Royal Navy. Jefferson,
believing America’s economy required free trade, enacted in
1807 the Embargo Act, which prohibited all American vessels
from sailing to foreign ports, to force an end to the blockades.
Renewed War in Europe and an
Embargo
• The Embargo stopped almost all American exports,
and devastated the nation’s ports, but did not
persuade France or Great Britain to end their
blockades. In 1809, Jefferson signed the NonIntercourse Act, which banned trade only with
Britain and France, and promised a resumption of
trade with either nation if it ended its ban on
American shipping.
Increasing Tensions With Europe
The Chesapeake
• When Jay’s Treaty, which ensured peace
between the United States and Britain,
expired in 1805, European nations were
back at war with each other.
• French warships attacked American ships
trading with Britain. British ships
interfered with American ships trading
with France.
• In 1807, a British ship, the Leopard,
attacked the USS Chesapeake, inflicted 21
casualties, and searched the ship for
deserters from the British navy.
The Embargo of 1807
• Jefferson, like many Americans, was
angered by this attack. In the Embargo
Act of 1807, Jefferson sought to punish
the British and French by imposing an
embargo, or a restriction on trade, on
almost all foreign countries.
•
Americans who made their living
through trade hated the embargo.
Many also despised the direct
interference of the national
government in the economy. The
embargo ruined Jefferson’s second
term.
Jefferson and the Embargo
• Americans who made their living through trade hated the
embargo. Jefferson ordered the navy to pursue and capture
smugglers who violated the embargo.
• What is ironic about Jefferson’s support and enforcement of
the embargo?
• Many despised the direct interference of the national
government in the economy. Jefferson’s use of the embargo
was especially ironic given his long standing opposition to any
increase in government authority. The embargo ruined
Jefferson’s second term.
Madison and the Pressure for War
(Cause of the War of 1812)
• In 1808, Jefferson’s successor James Madison easily won
election as president. With the Embargo a failure and deeply
unpopular, in 1810 Madison forged a new policy in which
trade was resumed with both powers, but provided that if
either France or Britain stopped interfering with American
shipping, the United States could re-impose an embargo on
the other nation. France ended its blockade, and the British
increased their attacks on American ships and sailors.
Madison and the Pressure for War
(Cause of the War of 1812)
• In 1812, Madison resumed the embargo against
Britain. Young Congressmen from the West known as
War Hawks, such as Henry Clay of Kentucky and John
Calhoun of South Carolina, called for war, in part
because it would be an opportunity to conquer
Florida and Canada. Others wanted a war to defend
the principles of free trade and end Europe’s power
over America.
•
Causes of the War of 1812
• Deteriorating relations with Indians in the West also
precipitated war. Under Jefferson, the government
continued efforts to “civilize” the Indians, even while
it made efforts to remove them from their lands to
open space for white settlers. Indians in the western
territories acquired through the Louisiana Purchase
by now were greatly outnumbered by whites, and
some tribes, particularly the Creek and Cherokee,
began to adopt white ways, such as agriculture and
slavery.
Causes of the War of 1812
• Others, called “nativists,” wanted to end European
influences and resist white settlement of their lands.
In the dozen years before 1812, movements of
prophecy and cultural revitalization swept western
and southern tribes, calling on Indians to stop the
white’s destructive practices, such as gambling and
drinking.
Causes of the War of 1812
• A more militant position was taken by two Shawnee
brothers, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa. They refused
to sign treaties with whites and advocated resistance
to the federal government, and Tenskwatawa, a
prophet, argued that whites were the source of all
evil and that Indians should completely separate
from everything European. In 1810, Tecumseh
organized attacks on frontier settlements. In 1811,
William Henry Harrison destroyed the militants’
village at the Battle of Tippecanoe.
The “Second War of Independence”
•
• When Madison asked Congress to declare war on
Britain in 1812, the vote reflected a divided nation.
Federalists and Republicans representing northern
states, where mercantile and financial interests were
concentrated, voted against the war. Southern and
western representatives voted overwhelmingly for it.
The War of 1812: “The Second War of
Independence”
• Deeply divided, the U.S. lacked a large navy or army,
lacked a central bank (since the Bank of the United
States’ charter expired in 1811), and northern
merchants and bankers refused to loan money to the
government. Britain, even though focused on the
war in Europe, initially repelled American invasions in
Canada and imposed an effective blockade on the
nation’s shipping.
Washington, DC Burns
• In 1814, the British
invaded and
captured
Washington, D.C.,
burned the White
House, and forced
the government to
flee.
The War of 1812
•
The United States had a few victories, including the defense of Baltimore at
Fort McHenry, an event that inspired the song that became the national
anthem, the “Star-Spangled Banner.”
• The United States decisively vanquished Indian forces in the
West and South, killing Tecumseh and many other militants.
Most notably, forces led by Andrew Jackson forced Indians to
cede much of the southeastern lands that became Alabama
and Mississippi, and then famously repulsed British forces at
the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815.
• This battle was fought before news reached America that
American and British negotiators had signed the Treaty of
Ghent which had ended the war the previous month. The
treaty changed nothing, giving the United States no territory
or rights regarding U.S. ships or impressment.
•
Washington, DC Burns
• In 1814, the British
invaded and
captured
Washington, D.C.,
burned the White
House, and forced
the government to
flee.
The Impact of the War of 1812
• At the time, some Americans called the War of 1812 the
Second War of Independence. The war affirmed the ability of
the republic to defend itself and wage war without sacrificing
its republican institutions. It made Andrew Jackson a national
hero. And it sealed the doom of Indians who occupied lands
east of the Mississippi River, thus finally securing this vast
area for whites, many of whom in the south would bring
slaves and slavery with them. The war strengthened
Americans’ nationalism and their sense of isolation and
separation from Europe.
•
The End of the Federalist Party
• The war sealed the demise of the Federalist Party, which had
been briefly revitalized by widespread opposition to the war
in the north. Madison only narrowly won re-election as
president in 1812. But an ill-timed convention of New England
Federalists at Hartford, Connecticut in December 1814, badly
injured the party. Convention delegates criticized the
domination of the presidency by Virginians, lamented the
diminishing influence of the northeast as new southern and
western states joined the union, and called for an end to the
three-fifths clause. They demanded two-thirds votes in
Congress for declaring war, admitting new states, and laws
restricting trade. But Jackson’s electrifying victory at New
Orleans made the Federalists seem unpatriotic.
•
The End of the Federalist Party
 Within a few years the Federalist Party disappeared. The urban
and commercial interests the party represented were small in
an expanding agrarian nation, and their elitism and distrust of
democracy was increasingly out of touch with an increasingly
democratic culture. But the Federalists had raised an issue that
would not go away in the future—the domination of the
national government by the slaveholding south—and the kind
of commercial development they championed would soon
inaugurate a social and economic transformation of the
nation.
The End of the Federalist Party
 The Federalists may have died, but over time their
vision of a powerful central government and a strong
executive would prevail. In fact, DemocraticRepublican Presidents and many in Congress
embraced some of the very ideas that they had
condemned when offered by the Federalists. James
Madison signed one bill re-chartering the Bank of the
United States in 1816 and another bill implementing
a protective tariff.
The End of the Federalist Party
 For example, Madison called for the creation of a
second National Bank and a protective tariff. Others
called for federal support for the building of internal
improvements. Ultimately, a new party system would
emerge between the Democratic-Republicans who
supported a more traditional limited government
view (They became Democrats) and those who
wanted an expanded role for the federal government
(They became Whigs).
The Jefferson Administration—
Assessment
Which of the following helped Jefferson meet his goal of reducing the influence of the national
government?
(A) The creation of an embargo
(B) Cuts in the size of the federal bureaucracy
(C) A duel with Aaron Burr
(D) Acquisition of the Louisiana Purchase
What is judicial review?
(A) The name of the Supreme Court’s ruling in Marbury v. Madison
(B) The appointment of judges at the last minute
(C) The power of courts to decide whether laws are constitutional
(D) A detail about the judicial branch mentioned in the Constitution
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The Jefferson Administration—
Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 3
Which of the following helped Jefferson meet his goal of reducing the influence of the national
government?
(A) The creation of an embargo
(B) Cuts in the size of the federal bureaucracy
(C) A duel with Aaron Burr
(D) Acquisition of the Louisiana Purchase
What is judicial review?
(A) The name of the Supreme Court’s ruling in Marbury v. Madison
(B) The appointment of judges at the last minute
(C) The power of courts to decide whether laws are constitutional
(D) A detail about the judicial branch mentioned in the Constitution
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Native American Resistance
Chapter 6, Section 4
• What led to war between the United States
and Native Americans in the Old Northwest?
• In what different ways did Native American
leaders react to United States expansion?
Chapter 6, Section 4
•
•
•
•
War in the Old Northwest
In the early 1790s, the Miami, Delaware, Shawnee, and other Native American groups came
together to fight American expansion. With the help of the British in Canada, and led by
warriors such as Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, they won several victories over the United
States.
The tide turned when the British withdrew their support and a new national army, known as
the Legion of the United States, was formed.
At the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers in present-day northwestern Ohio, the Legion defeated
the Native Americans. As a result, several groups of Native Americans were forced to accept
the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.
According to the Treaty of Greenville, these groups relinquished the southern two thirds of
Ohio and accepted that the Ohio River would no longer be a permanent boundary between
their land and that of the white settlers.
Native American Reactions
Chapter 6, Section 4
Different Strategies
• In the early 1800s, several Native
American leaders proposed different ways
to deal with the United States.
• These strategies included accepting white
culture, blending Indian and white
cultures, returning to Indian religious
traditions, and taking military action.
Acceptance and Blending
• Some Native Americans, including Little
Turtle, tried to live peacefully with white
settlers.
• Others, including a Seneca named
Handsome Lake, wanted to blend Native
American customs with those of the white
Americans.
Other Native American Strategies
Chapter 6, Section 4
Returning to Indian Traditions
• In Indiana, Tenskwatawa, known simply as
“the Prophet,” called for a return to
traditional Native American ways.
• Tenskwatawa was opposed to
assimilation, the process by which people
of one culture merge into and become
part of another culture.
• From his home on a reservation, an area
that the federal government had set aside
for Native Americans, Handsome Lake
urged Native Americans to focus more on
their traditions than on war.
Taking Military Action
• Tenskwatawa’s older brother, Tecumseh,
believed that Native Americans needed to
overcome local differences and unite in
order to resist United States expansion.
• Tecumseh’s forces were defeated by those
of the United States at the Battle of
Tippecanoe in 1811. The battle shattered
morale and eroded confidence in
Tenskwatawa’s leadership.
Native American Resistance—
Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 4
What occurred at the Battle of Fallen Timbers?
(A) The British in Canada began aiding Native Americans.
(B) The Legion of the United States defeated a group of Native Americans.
(C) Native Americans lost confidence in Tenskwatawa’s leadership.
(D) Several strategies for dealing with the United States arose.
Which of the following leaders favored blending Native American and white American traditions?
(A) Tenskwatawa
(B) Tecumseh
(C) Handsome Lake
(D) Blue Jacket
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Native American Resistance—
Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 4
What occurred at the Battle of Fallen Timbers?
(A) The British in Canada began aiding Native Americans.
(B) The Legion of the United States defeated a group of Native Americans.
(C) Native Americans lost confidence in Tenskwatawa’s leadership.
(D) Several strategies for dealing with the United States arose.
Which of the following leaders favored blending Native American and white American traditions?
(A) Tenskwatawa
(B) Tecumseh
(C) Handsome Lake
(D) Blue Jacket
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Chapter 6, Section 5
The War of 1812
• Why did war break out with Britain in 1812?
• How did the war’s end affect the United
States?
• What events led to the economic panic of
1819?
• What issues led to the Missouri Compromise?
Chapter 6, Section 5
War Breaks Out
• Many Americans, including members of Congress,
blamed the British for ongoing frontier violence
between Native Americans and white Americans.
• Anger toward Britain increased due to the British
practice of impressment, the act of forcing
people into military service. British ships
regularly stopped American ships at sea and
removed men to serve in the British navy.
• President James Madison called for war with
Britain, which Congress approved. The war that
followed became known as the War of 1812.
Chapter 6, Section 5
War on Land and Sea
The Land War
The Naval War
The Burning of
Washington, D.C
The United States had
only a small army and
navy, giving it a
disadvantage against
Britain. Although the
British defeated
American forces
attempting to invade
British-held Canada,
the American forces
won some modest
victories.
Despite the much larger
size of the British navy,
Americans at first won a
number of battles at sea.
Victories such as the one
by the USS Constitution
(“Old Ironsides”) raised
American morale.
However, the superior
British navy soon
blockaded the United
States coast.
In the summer of 1814,
British troops entered
Washington, D.C., and
started fires that
consumed the city. From
Washington, the British
moved on to Baltimore,
where American forces
turned them back.
Lawyer Francis Scott Key
witnessed an all-night
British bombardment
there and described it in
“The Star-Spangled
Banner.”
The War Ends
•
•
•
New Englanders suffered tremendous losses in trade during the war. In December
1814, they called a meeting known as the Hartford Convention to consider leaving
the nation. Instead, the convention called for constitutional amendments to
increase New England’s political power.
The War of 1812 officially ended on December 24, 1814, with the signing of the
Treaty of Ghent, which restored all old boundaries between the United States and
British territory in North America. The treaty did not, however, resolve many of
the issues that had caused the war, such as the British practice of impressment.
Before news of the treaty reached the United States, General Andrew Jackson won
a spectacular American victory against the British at the Battle of New Orleans.
The victory raised morale and allowed Americans to end an unhappy war on a
positive note.
Postwar Boom and Panic
Growth and Prosperity
• After the war, Americans began moving
westward at an incredible rate.
• Trade with Europe boomed, and banks
lent an abundant amount of credit.
• James Monroe and the Republican Party
dominated American politics, as the
Federalists faded out of existence.
The Panic of 1819
• In 1819, America experienced its first
depression, or severe economic
downturn.
• The depression, known as the Panic of
1819, began when London banks
demanded that banks in the United States
pay money owed to them. United States
banks in turn demanded the money that
they had loaned to the American public.
• Many Americans who had borrowed too
much money in previous years were
financially ruined.
The Missouri Compromise
•
•
•
•
In 1819, Congress began debating the admission of the state of Missouri to the
United States. The basic issue at stake was slavery.
Several members of Congress from the North objected to Missouri’s admission as a
slave state, fearing that this would upset the balance of free and slave states in the
South’s favor.
A compromise known as the Missouri Compromise, engineered by Henry Clay,
resolved the issue. Under the Missouri Compromise, Missouri would enter the
United States as a slave state, Maine would enter as a free state, and all new states
created above 360 30' N latitude (the southern border of Missouri) would have to
be free states.
The economy soon improved, and politicians agreed to avoid the difficult issue of
slavery. However, the questions raised by these issues would soon be impossible
to ignore.
The War of 1812—Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 5
Which of the following was a cause of the War of 1812?
(A) The balance of power between free and slave states
(B) The British practice of impressment
(C) Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans
(D) The decline of the Federalist Party
What did the Treaty of Ghent provide?
(A) Constitutional amendments to increase New England's political power
(B) Restoration of former borders in North America
(C) An end to impressment
(D) An end to frontier violence
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The War of 1812—Assessment
Chapter 6, Section 5
Which of the following was a cause of the War of 1812?
(A) The balance of power between free and slave states
(B) The British practice of impressment
(C) Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans
(D) The decline of the Federalist Party
What did the Treaty of Ghent provide?
(A) Constitutional amendments to increase New England's political power
(B) Restoration of former borders in North America
(C) An end to impressment
(D) An end to frontier violence
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