Transcript Second Semester Anatomy

Second Semester Anatomy
Final Review
Is it time already?
Nervous System
Ch 7
What are the two major parts
of the nervous system and
what are they composed of?
• Central nervous system:
Brain and Spinal chord
• Peripheral nervous system:
All other nerves
Vs.
2 Major Sub-Parts of the
Nervous System
• Somatic Nervous System
–Called Voluntary Nervous System
• Autonomic Nervous System
–Involuntary Nervous System:
Pgs. 225-227
Parasympathetic
–2 Major Branches
vs.
Sympathetic
• Sympathetic
Nervous System
• Parasympathetic
What is the job of the nervous
system?
• Sensory function: Detect changes
in and out of the body.
• Motor function: Effect Muscles &
glands.
• Integrative function: To connect the
Sensory and Motor function.
Produces thought.
What is nervous tissue?
• Neurons: or nerve cells. Conduct the
impulses.
• Neuroglial cells: nurse cells to
neurons. Protect, feed, speed up the
signal. There are many different
types for many different functions.
– Schwann, Astrocytes, & Microglea cells
What are the parts of a nerve?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Axon
Dendrite
Cell Body
Nucleus
Myelin
Node of Ranvier
So… How does a nerve signal
reach resting potential?
• Nerve has a slightly negative charge inside
and a slightly positive charge outside at rest.
= Polarized See fig 7.9
• K+ ions are inside, Na+ ions outside.
Negative charge can’t diffuse through the
membrane.
• Active transport is used to push Na+ out
and K+ in. More + leave than enter= neg.
charge inside.
How is an action potential
Action
reached?
Potential
• Change in nerve membrane Explained
permeability. Na+ rushes in the
nerve is depolarized (looses its
charge).
• K+ than rushes out which
repolarizes the nerve cell.
• 1/1000 of a second. Both steps
together are the action potential.
• Active transport soon reestablishes Action
Potential
the resting potential.
What kind of neurotransmitters
cross the synaptic cleft?
• Acetylcholine: Muscles
• Epinephrine/ Adreniline: Fight or Flight
• Norepinephrine: almost the same as
epinephrine but has no effect on the
heart.
• Dopamine: brain functions: not
working= schizophrenia and Parkinson's
• Seratonin: suppresses pain impulses
Do nerve cells reproduce once
mature?
• No. That is the problem. They
can grow axon ends, but once
the nucleus is damaged that
nerve will not grow back.
• Can not go through Mitosis.
How does a reflex work?
• Reflex Arc
• Stimulus Receptor end of a
Sensory neuron  Interneuron (reflex
center, often the spinal cord)  Motor
neuron  Effector (Muscle being
moved)Response
Reflex Arc
Ch 8: Special Senses
Eyes, Ear, Tongue, & Touch
Some neurons are Sensory
Receptors
• Naked Nerve Endings=Pain
• Meissner’s Corpuscles= Touch
• Pacinian Corpuscles= Deep Touch
• Many Others: Figure 7.7
External Anatomy of the Eye
• Eyelids: Protection, Lubrication
• Eyelashes: Protection
• Glands: Meibomian and Ciliary
–Meibomian: Oil glands, modified
sebaceous glands on eyelids
–Ciliary: Modified sweat glands.
What is the Lacrimal apparatus and
what does it do?
• Lacrimal apparatus
– Lacrimal glands: release tears
– Lacrimal ducts (eyelid) and canals (nose)
– Nasolacrimal ducts: empties into the nose
• Lacrimal Secretion: Tears have
antibodies and lysozyme. Cleans,
moistens.
• Why is it called a healthy cry?
What are the internal structures
of the eye?
•
•
•
•
•
Sclera: white of the eye
Cornea: Clear
Iris: colorful part of the eye
Pupil: Opening of the Iris
Lens and ciliary body: Ciliary body holds
the lens in place. The lens focuses light on
the back of the eye.
What fills the inner eye?
• Aqueous Humor: Circulates from the
cornea to the Lens through the canal of
Schlemm.
• Vitreous Humor: In the space behind the
eyeball. Keeps the eyes shape, and
keeps intraocular pressure stable.
• Floaters?
• Glaucomma?
What lines the back of the eye?
• Retina: photoreceptor layer
– Rods: Black and white
– Cones: Color
• Choroid coat: Dark, vascularized layer.
Absorbls light. *Non-humans are different
• Sclera: Thick, white covering
Light travels through the…
Cornea to the Aqueous humor to the Pupil to
the lens.
In the Lens light is bent so that it will hit the
Retina of the eye.
To get to the Fovea Centrals light must
continue to pass through Vitreous humor.
Light than hits the Retina were Rods and
Cones interpret the image and sent it to
the Optic nerve to the brain.
External Ear
Ear
Explained
• Auricle
• External Auditory Meatus-2.5 cm long
leads to Middle ear
The Middle Ear
• Tympanic Cavity: air-filled space
• Tympanic Membrane- ear drum
• Pressure changes cause it to vibrate, enhances
the sound wave
• Auditory Ossicles: smallest bones in the
body. Malleus, incus, and stapes.
• The Stapes vibrate at the oval window
causing fluid in the inner ear to move,
stimulating hearing receptors.
Inner Ear
• Semicircular Canals: maintain equilibrium
• Cochlea: hearing
• Round Window: the stapes vibrates this in
order for your nerves to fire and for you to
hear sound.
The Nose
• Smells using Olfactory Receptors
– Yellow-brown mass located at the top of each
nasal cavity
– Size of a postage stamp.
How do olfactory receptor cells
smell?
• Use Olfactory Hairs
– Must be covered in mucus
– Chemicals dissolve in mucus
– Trigger nerve
• Olfactory Nerve
– Connects to the Olfactory Bulb in Brain.
Travels to temporal lobe for interpretation.
– Tied to the limbic system (emotional system)
of the brain. Smells stimulate memories.
The Tongue
And Taste
How Do You Taste?
• Gustatory cells- respond to chemicals
that are dissolved in saliva
• Taste buds- receptor sites for tastes.
Most are on the tongue. Some are on
the roof of the mouth and cheeks
• Papillae- on the sides of this structure is
where taste buds are found
Basic Taste Sensations
• Sweet- sugar, OH- groups
• Sour- acidic, H+
• Bitter- alkaloid bases, way few H+ bonds
• Salty- metal ions
Lymphatic System
Immune response and Drainage
Parts of the Lymphatic System
• Lymphatic Capillaries: pick up extra fluid
from between cells.
• Lymphatic Vessels: Lymph capillaries
merge into larger vesicles that carry lymph
to the nodes.
• Lymph Nodes: Oblong structures that
contain while blood cells (lymphocytes)
that kill invaders.
• Lymph: Fluid in the lymphatic system.
Where does the fluid go?
• Once clean it empties into the vena cava
of the heart.
• Puts all spare fluid into the blood stream
where it will be filtered in the kidneys.
What about the Spleen?
• Spleen is a cardio and lymphatic organ
• Stores extra blood
• Checks blood and removes aged or
damaged red blood cells.
• Also can play a role in body defense
because of the high amount of lymphatic
cells stored there.
Cardiovascular System
What protects the Heart?
• The Pericardium
• 2 layers
– Parietal Pericardium
– Visceral Pericardium
– Fluid between to reduce friction
• Pericarditits: reduced serous fluid. Sticks,
heart can’t move.
The Heart Valves
 Job: blood flow in one direction.
• Semilunar valves: between the arteries
and ventricles
– Pulmonary semilunar valve
– Aortic semilunar valve
 Atrioventricular valves: between the
atria and ventricles
• Tricuspid valve (right)
• Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left)
Lets
Review!
The Flow
of Blood
Differences Between Blood
Vessel Types
 Walls of arteries are the thickest: Have
pulse
 Lumens of veins are larger: Not strongvericose veins.
 Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins
toward the heart
 Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer
thick to allow for exchanges between blood
and tissue
Variations in Blood Pressure
 Human normal range is variable
Normal
140–110 mm Hg systolic
80–75 mm Hg diastolic
Hypotension
Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
Often associated with illness
Hypertension
High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
Can be dangerous if it is chronic
Blood
Functions of Blood
Transportation:
oxygen and carbon dioxide
nutrients
waste products
hormones
Regulation: pH & body temperature
Protection: Immune Response
Characteristics
Connective tissue
pH is slightly alkaline (basic): 7.35
to 7.45
4-6 liters of blood per adult
 Plasma---55%
 Formed
elements---45%
platelets
erythrocytes
leukocytes
Hemoglobin
o Iron containing protein
o Binds strongly, but reversibly to
oxygen
o Each hemoglobin molecule has
four oxygen binding sites
o Each erythrocyte has 250
million hemoglobin molecules
Leukocytes:White Blood Cells
The Immune Response
•
•
•
Humoral
Immunity
(Go
animation)
Blood
Groups
AB
B
A
O
 The mismatch of an Rh– mother
carrying an Rh+ baby can cause
problems for the unborn child
The first pregnancy usually proceeds
without problems
In a second pregnancy, the mother’s
immune system produces antibodies to
attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease
of the newborn)
Video Clips that may help
• Video Clip
• Of
• Blood Clot
Blood
Typing
Game
The Respiratory System
Chapter 13
General Overview of the
Respiratory system.
• General Function:
– Take air from outside the body and
bring it into the lungs.
O2 in
– Filters
The lungs
– Exchanges CO2 and O2
– Removes CO2 from the body
What is Respiration?
• The general process of taking air from
the outside and bringing it to the body
cells
• Used for cellular respiration in the
mitochondria- to make ATP
The Organs of the Respiratory
System
• Nose
– Made of cartilage, anchored by bone and cartilage.- never stops
growing.
– Nostrils- opening which lets air through. Problem: Deviated
Septum: Crooked nostrils
– Nostrils have hair- filters or prevents large items from entering
any further.
• Pharynx = Fork in the road. Shoots food down
towards the esophagus (digestive system) and shoots air
down to the trachea.
• Located dorsal to the Nasal Cavity but superior to the
Larynx.
The Larynx
• Enlarged area atop the trachea.
• Made of muscle and cartilage which is bound
together by elastic tissue.
• Contains the vocal cords.
• Sound is produced when air squeezes between
the vocal cords, causes vibrations, causing
sound waves. Words are formed when the
shape of the larynx and oral cavity is changed by
moving your lips and tongue.
Cilia – tiny hairs
Trapped particles
- dust, pollen,
pollution
The Trachea
• AKA the Windpipe
• Flexible 2.5 cm diameter tube. Starts from
below the larynx continuing downward
until it splits into 2 bronchi.
• Inner walls contain ciliated mucous
membranes which trap particles. The
trapped particles are pushed up into the
pharynx for removal (cough)
The Bronchial Tree
• From the trachea to the left and right
lung.
• The trachea branches into the Right and
Left Primary bronchus.
• Then branches into secondary and
finally tertiary bronchi ultimately leading
to the bronchiole and the Alveoli.
• Alveoli are surrounded by capillaries
(where gas exchange takes place).
How do you Breathe?
• Inspiration: Diaphragm and external
intercostals contract, the size of the
thoracic cavity increases. Internal
pressure= 758
• Expiration: Diaphragm and external
intercostals relax, the size of the
thoracic cavity decreases. Internal
pressure= 762.
CPR
• ATM: Atmospheric Pressure= 760 Video
Chapter 15
The Urinary System
Kidneys
• Maintain purity and constancy of internal
fluids
• Filter fluid from blood
• Eliminate nitrogenous wastes, toxins and
drugs
• Convert vitamin D to active form
• Regulate blood volume and chemical
makeup - salt-water and acid-base balance,
BP
Regions of Kidney
• Renal cortex - light, outer region
• Renal medulla - dark, reddish-brown area
deep to cortex
– medullary pyramids - triangular w/ stripes
separated by renal columns
Nephrons
• Structural and functional unit of kidney
– millions
– form urine product
More on the Nephron
!!! Go to
Fig. 15.5!!
– The Glomerous: 1st part. High
pressure area which pushes out
waste and returns good blood to the
body via the efferent arteriole. This
blood will later be transported to the
Inferior Vena Cava and returned to
the heart.
– The Loop of Henley: 2nd part. High
salt content. Pulls excess water out
of the tube and into the kidney
thereby increasing the urine
concentration.
How is BP regulated?
• ADH- antidiuretic hormone secreted from
the posterior pituitary prevents excess
water loss.
– If not functioning: Diabetes Insipidus. 25L/day
lost
• Aldosterone- regulates Na+ ions. Water
follows salt. Na+Cl- increase H2O in blood
& Ions.
• Renin- regulates aldosterone and increases
vaso-constriction.
Where does it all go?
• Bladder is a small walnut shaped,
heavily folded, hollow organ. Expands
when water enters it. Pressure
increases as the bladder expands.
• Urine exits the body through the
Urethra. See Fig 15.10.
• People produce .6-2.5 liters of urine a
day depending on how much a person
drinks.
Chapter 14
The Digestive System and Body Metabolism:
Takes in food, breaks it down into nutrient molecules
and absorbs them into the bloodstream, then rids the
body of indigestible remains
Anatomy of Digestive System
• Alimentary canal - digests food and
absorbs digested fragments through its
lining into the blood
• Accessory digestive organs - assist: teeth,
tongue, glands
Organs of Alimentary Canal
• Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal, GI, tract continuous hollow tube that winds through
ventral body cavity, open at both ends
• mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestine
Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus:
Food Ingestion & Breakdown
• Food physically broken down by chewing,
mixed w/ saliva
• No food absorption in mouth
• Pharynx/esophagus have no digestive function
- only carry food to stomach
Stomach - Food Breakdown
• Secretion of gastric juice by sight, smell, and
taste of food
• presence of food and falling pH stimulate
release of hormone gastrin that makes stomach
produce enzymes, mucus, & HCl
• 2-3 liters gastric juice per day
Small Intestine
• Chemical digestion begins
• Small amount of food processed at a time controlled by pyloric sphincter
• Pancreatic enzymes from pancreatic duct
and bile from bile duct enter duodenum
Small Intestine - 3 subdivisions
• Duodenum - curves around head of
pancreas
• Jejunum - extends from duodenum to ileum
• ileum - terminal part that joins large intestine
at ileocecal valve
Large Intestine Subdivisions
• Job: Absorb excess water and
compaction.
• Cecum - saclike, first part
• Appendix - wormlike structure hanging from
cecum; ideal bacteria location - appendicitis
• Colon - ascending, transverse, descending,
and sigmoid
Large Intestine Subdivisions
• Rectum
• Anal canal - ends in anus which opens to
exterior; has external voluntary sphincter
and internal involuntary sphincter
Digestive
System
Review
Animation
Accessory Digestive Organs
• Liver: Produces Bile
– Gall bladder: Stores bile which is released
into the small intestine.
• Pancrease: produces enzymes that break
down food and neutralize acidic chyme from
stomach, produces hormones insulin, glucagon
The Endocrine System
How our
hormones
function
The
Endocrine
System
Clip
What is the Endocrine
System?
 Series of cells, tissues, and
organs that secrete
hormones into body fluids
(blood).
 Hormone= a chemical
secreted by endocrine glands
which has a specific effect on
another cell or organ.
•
•
•
•
•
•
What do hormones
control?
Reproduction
Growth and development
Maintain homeostasis
Regulation of metabolism
Increasing bodies defenses
Gets “stuff” through cell
membranes.
How do hormones work?
 Hormones are produced by specialized cells
in glands.
 Glands secrete hormones into extra-cellular
fluids
 Blood transfers hormones to target sites
 Hormones cause changes in target cells
What are the two types of
hormones? Fig 9.1
• Steroid Hormones
Steroid
–Soluble in fat. Penetrate cell Hormone
membrane.
–Reach nucleus
• Nonsteroid Hormones
–Not soluble in fat. Bind to cell Adrenalin
The non Steroid
membrane.
Hormone
–Cascade of chemical reactions.
How are Hormone Secretions
Controlled?
Negative Feedback System
Neg.
Sys.
Gland A secretes causing Gland B to
secrete. Gland B’s secretions inhibit A.
Like a thermostat.
Nerve Control
Controlled by the brain. Complicated.
There are Positive feedback systemsbut they are limited.
Pancreatic Islets
The pancreas,
Insulin, Glucose,
& Diabetes
 The islets of the pancreas produce hormones
 Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma
membranes into cells from beta cells
 Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the blood
from alpha cells
 These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis.
Male Reproductive System
Path and Production of Sperm
• Testes- olive size (1-1.5in)
– Divided into lobules
• Lobules contain 1-4 seminiferous tubules
– Between seminiferous tubules are
interstitial cells
• Interstitial cells produce androgens =
testosterone
– Sperm leave S.F.T. to go into
epididymus.
The path continues….
• Epididymus
– 20 ft. coiled on posterior lateral side of
testis
– Use: temporary storage of immature
sperm.
– Sperm travel approximately 1 ft a day
– Sperm gain ability to swim at the end
– When stimulated male epididymus
contracts to expel sperm into the vas
deference.
The long and windy road…
• Vas Deferens
– Runs up epididymus into pelvic cavity
– Arches over bladder
– Empties into ejaculatory duct.
– Vasectomy = vas deference is cut or
cauterized.
• Sperm produced but reabsorbed
• Testosterone still produced. Sex
drive and characteristics remain the
same.
Still traveling….
• Ejaculatory duct- (ejac to shoot forth)
– Passes through prostate gland
– Merges with urethra
– Moves sperm through peristaltic waves.
Accessory Glands
Seminal Vesicle: 60% of semen
– Sugar nourishes,Vitamin C activates
sperm
– Excretes into the ejaculatory duct
• Prostate Gland
– Chestnut size and shape
– Below bladder, anterior to rectum = milky fluid
activates sperm
• Bulbourethral Glands: Cleans Urethra
Semen
•
•
•
•
Alkaline pH 7.2-7.6
Neutralizes vaginal pH of 3.5
Dilutes sperm – increasing sperm motility
Approximately 1 tsp (5ml) of fluid
ejaculated with 50-130 million sperm in
each ml.
External Genitalia
• Scrotum
– Job to decrease temp. to keep sperm
viable
– Changes in scrotal surface area
depending on Temp.
• Penis or ‘tail’
– Urethra is surrounded by three tubes of
erectile tissue
– Fill with blood when excited = erection
Female Reproductive
System
And all its many parts.
(last chapter in the book in
case you were wondering)
Birth of Venus
Venus De Milo
The Duct System
• Ovary. Floats freely. Contains and
matures eggs.
– Part of the Endocrine system. Secretes
Estrogen.
• Fallopian Tube- 4in/10cm long: catches egg
with fimbriae.
• Uterus: Receives, retains and nourishes egg
• Vagina: 3-4 inches long= birth canal
Menstrual Cycle
• Day 1-5: Mensus, lasts 3-5 days. Blood
loss is ¼ to ½ cup. *Iron pills important.
• Day 6-14: Endometrium, glands, and
blood supply increase. Ovulation Day 14.
• Day 15-28: Corpus luteum secretes
progesterone in case of pregnancy. Day
28 endometrium spasms and kinks
because the corpus luteum disintegrates.
• Pg. 493
Menstrual cycle
Cycle Charts
More Charts
The egg
• Released egg is Large, Non-motile, Full of
food. Lives 24hrs on average.
• Still has to go through the last meiotic
division.
• Becomes 1N only when sperm penetrates.
Pg 489
• In the fallopian tube it is fertilized and
becomes a blastula.
What happens to the egg?
•
•
•
•
Zygote= egg & sperm combine
Cleavage= Egg splits into 2 cells
Blastula= a hollow ball of cells
Gastrula= caved in blastula with 3
layers
– Ectoderm = skin and nerves
– Mesoderm= muscles, bones,
reproductive sys.
– Endoderm= Intestine, Respiratory sys.
Mammary glands- all mammals have
em’.
• Mammary glands- present in both
sexes.
• Modified sweat glands and part of the
skin.
• 15-25 lobes radiate around each nipple.
• Lobes are subdivided into lobules
which contain alveolar glands.
• Alveolar glands produce milk when a
woman is lactating.
• Lactiferous ducts open to the outside
of the nipple.
Effects of Pregnancy on Mother
•
•
•
•
Crowded abdominal organs
Ribs flare- thorax widens
Changes a women's center of gravity- back ache
Relaxin- hormone causes ligaments to relax and
ease birth canal= pregnancy waddle
• Effects GI system- morning sickness, heart burn,
& constipation.
• Effects Urinary system- frequent urge to urinate.
• Respiratory and Circulatory system.
Stages of Labor
• Dilation= 10 cm 6-12 hours
• Expulsion= 20min- 2 hrs
– Head first- breath quickly
– Breech- butt first
– C-section- if baby is in danger (O2)
• Placental= 15min after birth
– Postpartum bleeding- all afterbirth not
removed.
Overview of
Childbirth
Contraception