Transcript Learning and Memory

A process based on experience that
results in a relatively permanent
change in behavior or behavioral
potential.
Examples: Riding a bike; Using
chopsticks; reading; sleeping in a bed





Ivan Pavlov
Russia
What is learning?
Classical Conditioning: A
learning process in which
associations are made
between a natural stimulus
and a neutral stimulus.
Pavlov’s doggy . . .


Pavlov began his experiments
by ringing a tuning fork and
then immediately placing
some meat powder on the
dogs tongue. He chose the
tuning fork because it was a
neutral stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus
that does not initially elicit
any part of the unconditioned
response.



Well, after a few times the dog
begins to salivate by merely
hearing the sound, even if there
was no food within it’s sight.
Pavlov demonstrated that a
neutral stimulus (here, the tuning
fork) can cause a formerly
unrelated response.
This occurs if it is presented
regularly just before the stimulus
(here, the food) that normally
brings about a response (here,
salivation.)




According to Pavlov, every human or animal
has a set of unconditional or involuntary
responses.
Such responses include blushing, shivering,
being startled, and salivating.
In this experiment, food was the unconditional
stimulus.
Unconditional Stimulus (UCS): An event that
elicits a certain predictable response typically
without previous training.




A few other important things:
Unconditioned Response (UCR): An
organism’s automatic (or neutral) reaction to
a stimulus. (Example = salivation).
Under normal conditions, the sound of a
tuning fork would not cause salivation. The
dog had to be taught, or conditioned to
associate this sound with food.
An ordinarily neutral event that, after
training, leads to a response such as
salivation is termed a conditioned stimulus.



Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once-neutral
event that elicits a given response after a period
of training in which it has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
The salivation that is caused by the tuning fork
is called a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned
reaction to a conditioned stimulus.



A classically conditioned
response, like any other
behavior, is subject to change.
Pavlov discovered that if he
stopped presenting food after
the sound of the tuning fork, the
sound gradually lost its effect on
the dog.
After he repeatedly struck the
tuning fork without giving food,
the dog no longer associated the
sound with the arrival of food –
the sound of the tuning fork no
longer caused the salivation
response.





Pavlov called this effect extinction!
Extinction: The gradual disappearance of a
conditioned response when the conditioned
stimulus is repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus.
Yet, even though the conditioned response has
been extinguished, it does not mean that the
CR has been completely unlearned.
Spontaneous Recovery!
You eventually see the object again and get a
response…



Mountain Dew Original
MD Ram
MD Baa

Volunteers?





Ok, so, suppose you have a dinosaur!
Yes a dinosaur!
Your dinosaur is wandering around the
neighborhood, sniffing trees, checking
garbage cans, and looking for a squirrel
to chase.
A kind neighbor sees the dinosaur and
tosses a bone out of the kitchen door to it.
The next day the dinosaur is likely to stop
at the same door on it’s rounds. Once
again your neighbor produces another
bone, so the dinosaur becomes a regular
visitor!
Why?




Well I’ll tell ya why! Hold your
horses!
Well, ummm, see, there’s this, well,
ummm, thing called, like, operant
conditioning.
Operant Conditioning: Learning in
which a certain action is reinforced
or punished, resulting in
corresponding increases and
decreases in occurrence.
Operant = operates due to a change
yo.

Thorndike = Law of Effect – learning from
the consequences of our behavior (cat and
puzzle box) – repeat the positives

B.F. Skinner = new ideas to OC –
Reinforcement; behavior which is
reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.
strengthened); behavior which is not
reinforced tends to vanish (i.e. weakened)









Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Try to frame your thinking like this:
Reinforcement=Desirable
Punishment=NOT desirable
Positive=to add
Negative=to take away

School Rules Activity



Shaping- reinforcement of behaviors that are
increasingly similar to the one that you want to
occur.
Discrimination-the ability to distinguish among
similar signals or stimuli.
Extinction- loss of a learned response when a
consequence no longer follows it.

Shaping activity?


Reinforcement: Stimulus or event follows a
response and increases the likelihood that the
response will be repeated.
Examples of reinforcers:
 Social Approval
 Money
 Extra privilages
 Giving a dog a treat when it shakes your hand.


In the concept of negative reinforcement, a
painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed.
The removal of unpleasant consequences
increases the frequency of a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Increasing the
strength of a given response by removing or
preventing a painful stimulus when the
response occurs.





Continuous reinforcement- Vending machine approach
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in
which a specific number of correct responses is
required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in
which an unpredictable number of responses are
required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in
which a specific amount of time must elapse before a
response will elicit reinforcement.
Variable-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement
in which changing amounts of time must elapse before
a response will obtain reinforcement.


Cognitive Learning focuses on how
information is obtained, processed, and
organized. Such learning is concerned with the
mental process involved in learning. Latent
Learning and Learned Helplessness are
examples of cognitive learning.
Cognitive Learning: Form of altering behavior
that involves mental processes and may result
from observation or imitation.


Examples:
1. Latent Learning. Latent learning is not
demonstrated by an immediately observable
change in behavior at the time of the learning.
Although the learning typically occurs in the
absence of a reinforcer, it may not be demonstrated
until the reinforcer appears.
 Example: Have you ever had to locate a building or a street
in a section of Durham that you are unfamiliar with? You
may have been through that section of town before and
remember details such as an unusual sign or building.
Remembering these details may have helped you find the
building or street you were looking for. In other words, you
learned some details you were not intending to.


Examples:
2. Learned Helplessness. Learned helplessness
is a condition in which repeated attempts to
control a situation fail, resulting in the belief
that the situation is uncontrollable.

Example: You do poorly on a math test the first time
you try and decide it was because you had not
studied enough. The next test, you do poorly again
and decide it was because you did not feel well. On
the third test, you once again score poorly…You give
up and decide that you “are just dumb,” giving up
on math.



Modeling!
Modeling: Learning by
imitating others; copying
behavior!
This is how the majority of
people learn how to act in new
situations (sports, concerts, etc.)



The term “behavior modification” often
appears in magazine articles describing
research on changing people’s behavior
through drugs, “mind control,” or even brain
surgery.
In fact, it is none of these things.
Behavior Modification: Refers to the
systematic application of learning principles to
change people’s actions and feelings.

Example: Giving your little brother a quarter to go
away!
Definition = The process of
learning new responses by
watching the behavior of another
 The process of acquiring
information by observing others
 Example: Learning to tie your
shoe by observing someone else
perform the task

 Albert
Bandura =
1. People can learn through
observation
2. Mental states are important to
learning (awareness)
3. Learning does not necessarily
lead to a change in behavior
 Albert
Bandura =
The Modeling Process
1.) Attention: In order to learn, you need
to be paying attention.
2.) Retention: ability to store the
information
3.) Reproduction: actually performing the
behavior you observed
4.) Motivation: for learning to be
successful, one has to be motivated to act
upon the behavior. Reinforcement and
punishment can help focus learners