Transcript learning by operant conditioning

OVERVIEW OF THE MORNING
Overview of Human Learning
From Epistemology to Psychology
Behavioral Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs
Operant Conditioning: Thorndike’s Cats and Skinner’s Rats
Theory to Practice
Behaviorism in the Classroom
Components and Implications
Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theory
Read Module 10
WHAT IS LEARNING?
“Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from
practice or other forms of experience” (Schunk, 2004, p. 2).
“Learning occurs when experience causes a relatively
permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior”
(Woolfolk, 2007, p. 206).
“Any relatively permanent change in an organism that
results from experience” (Me, Now, Here).
What are the three criteria common in these definitions?
TWO DOMINANT CAMPS OF
CONTEMPORARY LEARNING THEORIES
Behaviorism
Cognitvism
Learning involves the…
thoughtless conditioning
thoughtful construction
of S-R/R-S associations
of knowledge
Causing changes in …
observable behavior
internal mental structures
Reinforcers and punishers…
strengthen and weaken
provide information
response associations
and motivation
Research focuses on…
animals to find general
laws of learning
human development and
learning in many contexts
GUIDING QUESTIONS
What are the similarities and differences between classical and
instrumental conditioning?
In what ways have you been conditioned?
What are some of ways that students get conditioned at school?
BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING
Classical (Respondent) Conditioning
•
•
Ivan Pavlov and His Dogs
Stimulus  Response (S-R)
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
•
•
•
E.L. Thorndike and His Cats
B.F. Skinner and His Rats
Response  Stimulus (R-S) or really S-R-S
0r ABC: Antecedents  Behavior  Consequences
LEARNING BY CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING: PAVLOV’S DOG
Phases of Conditioning
1.
2.
3.
Before Conditioning
•
UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation)
During Conditioning (Acquisition)
•
CS (bell) paired with UCS (food) -> UCR
(salivation)
After Conditioning
•
CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
IN “THE OFFICE”
T2P: THINK-PAIR-SHARE
Think of time when you feel you were classical conditioned (or
when you think you witnessed CC in action). Write a short
paragraph describing this event.
Pair up with a person next to you.
Share your experiences with each other and then:
* Create a diagram to represent the experience that you think best
exemplifies CC (you may want to use the labels NS, UCS, CS,
UCR, CR).
* Discuss the educational implications (If this is positive example,
how might you promote it? If negative, how might you prevent it?
* Be prepared to share your model with your peers
OTHER PAVLOVIAN PHENOMENA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Generalization (Transfer)
Discrimination (Shaping)
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Conditioned Emotional Responses
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
1.
2.
3.
Avoid conditioning negative responses:
e.g., don’t dwell on poor performances, tell
student you expect better work next time.
Link learning to positive emotions: e.g.,
pair positive feelings with learning, esp.
areas where students are having
difficulty.
Teach students to generalize and
discriminate appropriately: e.g., make it
clear that poor performance on one project
or test does make the student an overall
poor performer.
BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING
Classical (Respondent) Conditioning
•
•
Ivan Pavlov and His Dogs
Stimulus -> Response (S-R)
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
•
•
•
E.L. Thorndike and His Cats
B.F. Skinner and His Rats
Response -> Stimulus (R-S) or really S-R-S
0r ABC: Antecedents -> Behavior -> Consequences
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
SKINNERIAN STYLE
LEARNING BY OPERANT
CONDITIONING:
THRONDIKE’S CATS, SKINNER’S RATS
Operants
Voluntary, goal-directed behaviors emitted to
produce a consequence
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Actions that produce desirable effects in a given
situation tend to be repeated in that situation, and
vice-versa.
Skinner’s Three-Term Contingency Model
A
B
C
Operant Conditioning: Four Major Methods
Outcome of Conditioning
Presentation
of Stimulus
Increase
Behavior
Decrease
Behavior
Positive
Reinforcement
(“Reward”)
Presentation
Punishment
(“Type I”)
Removal/With
Negative
holding of
Reinforcement
Stimulus
(“Escape”)
Removal
Punishment
(“Type II”)
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html
GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF…
Presentation Punishment
-Apply negative stimulus to decrease behavior
Removal Punishment
-Remove positive stimulus to decrease behavior
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Continuous

Reinforce after every response  light switch
Fixed-interval

Reinforce after a set period of time  quiz every Friday
Variable-interval

Reinforce after varying lengths of time  pop quiz
Fixed-ratio

Reinforce after set number of responses  gold stars
Variable-ratio

Reinforce after varying number of responses  slot
machines
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS & METHODS
Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

Food, Water, Shelter, etc. vs. Grades, Money, Status, etc.
Premack’s Principle (aka Grandma’s Rule)

First you do this, then you get that: “You can go out to play
after you eat your vegetables.”
Skinner’s Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous vs. Intermittent (Interval/Ratio;
Fixed/Variable) = V-R Schedule is most effective
Shaping/Successive Approximation

Method of teaching complex behavior by rewarding behav.
that comes closer and closer to desired behav.
A BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE APPROACH TO
TEACHING
Four Components
1. Focus instruction on observable learner
performance.
2. Assure learners can perform all prerequisite
skills.
3. Present instructional material effectively and
elicit rapidly paced, correct performance.
4. Use appropriate consequences following
performance.
THEORY TO PRACTICE…
Think of complex task in your subject area (such as
conducting library or internet research for a paper).
 It’s over half way through the academic year and
many of your students still depend on you for stepby-step instructions every time you assign the task.
 How can you help them to learn or internalize the
skills needed?

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
(BANDURA, 1977, 1986)
BANDURA’S THEORIES OF
LEARNING
Social Learning Theory (1977)
A Neo-Behavioral View of Learning
• Behaviorism + Social Factors = Learn by
observing others (and from the consequences of
their actions)
• Learning-Performance Distinction = We know
more than we show
•
Social Cognitive Theory (1986)
• Introduced personal factors into the equation
• Triadic Reciprocality = SLT + Cognitive Factors
• Bridge between behavioral and cognitive learning
theories
TRIADIC RECIPROCALITY
http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html
MODELING (2 MEANINGS)
1)
What the model does
-Demonstrate a behavior
2)
What the observer does
-Mimic a behavior




Teaches new behaviors
Influences the frequency of previously
learned behaviors
May encourage previously forbidden
behaviors
Increases frequency of similar behaviors
TYPES OF MODELS
Live Model
Someone who is directly observed
(e.g. peers, parents, teachers)
TYPES OF MODELS
Symbolic Model
Does not exist in same environment
(e.g. books, television, movies)
MODEL CHARACTERISTICS
Relevant: Model is similar to the observer
(age, gender, ethnicity, SES) and is
performing an interesting behavior
Competence: Model should be viewed as
competent by the observer
Status: Model should have high status in the
observer’s environment
Gender Appropriateness: Someone of same sex
performing gender appropriate behaviors
BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL
BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL
LEARNING BY OBSERVING:
FOUR KEY PROCESSES OF THE
OBSERVER
Attention = Must attend to the behavior being
observed
Retention = Must remember the behavior
Reproduction = Must be able to produce the
observed behavior
Motivation = Must be motivated to perform the
behavior
TRIADIC RECIPROCALITY
http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
Response facilitation (vicarious reinforcement)
 Response inhibition (vicarious punishment)
 Response disinhibition

PERSONAL FACTORS: SELF EFFICACY
Belief about one’s capabilities for success
How SE is strengthened:
Past performance
Modeling
Verbal persuasion
Physiological state
•
•
•
•
How does SE affect behavior?
•
•
•
•
Choice of activities
Goals
Effort and persistence/ task perseverance
Learning & achievement
SELF-EFFICACY
What affects the development of SE?
Past successes and failures
Messages from others - “Pep talks”
Successes and failures of others
Successes and failures of one’s “group”
LEARNING LIKE A MACHINE
Operant Conditioning
Skinnerian Approach
 The Black Box - Cognitive Processes

human
mind
Stimulus
Response
Cognition is Opening the Black Box
thinking
schemata
memory
metacognition
reasoning
elaboration
scripts
Cognition

ACQUISITION

TRANSFER

RETRIEVAL
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES:
COMMON FOCUS & ASSUMPTIONS
Focus on internal (mental) processes that
intervene between S and R (less concerned
with objective external conditions).
Assumptions
1.
Learners actively seek out, process, organize,
and even transform information….
2.
Processing occurs in stages and the form of
information changes from stage to stage
3.
Computer processing is analogous to (or
least an apt metaphor for) human
information processing
Components of Memory

Sensory Short-Term Store (SSTS)
very short (0.5 seconds)
 ex: brief snapshot


Short-Term M. (STM) / Working M.
limited capacity
 chunking and rehearsal


Long-Term M. (LTM)
organized
 assimilated to existing knowledge

Working Memory
Also referred to as short-term memory
 Where you hold information while you are
“working on it’

Calculations
 Sounding out/ figuring out new words
 Making decisions

THE TWO-STORE MODEL
Working Memory
on your mind
It’s what’s…
Long-Term
Memory
Its capacity is …
in your mind
Its duration is…
practically unlimited
It consists of…
relatively permanent
limited (7+/-2)
very brief
words, images, ideas,
sentences and other symbols
productions, propositional
networks, schemata, images,
episodes
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
Environmental Inputs/Stimuli
Executive
Sensory Registers
Attention
Control
Maintenace
Rehearsal
Processes
Perception
Lost
Prior Knowledge;
Current Needs
Working (Short-Term)Memory
Prior
Knowledge
In-Depth
Processing
Lost
Organization (chunking, etc)
Elaborative Rehearsal
Schemata (Assimilation v Accommodation)
Long-Term Memory
Lost?
COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING:
SENSORY MEMORY
Sensory Registers (Vision, Hearing, Touch, Smell, Taste, and
???)
 Each sense has its own register and each can be engaged
simultaneously & independently
Perception
The process of attaching meaning to the environmental stimuli
we receive through our sensory registers
 Gesalt Theory (top-down processing = using knowledge and
expectation)

Attention
A limited resource and general limitation of the entire human
information processing system (ie determines which stimuli
receive further processing)
 Influenced by: size, intensity, personal significance, incongruity
& emotion

FACE-TO-FACE OR VASE?
FLIPPING FIGURE-GROUND
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
Environmental Inputs/Stimuli
Executive
Sensory Registers
Attention
Control
Maintenace
Rehearsal
Processes
Perception
Lost
Prior Knowledge;
Current Needs
Working (Short-Term)Memory
Prior
Knowledge
In-Depth
Processing
Lost
Organization (chunking, etc)
Elaborative Rehearsal
Schemata (Assimilation v Accommodation)
Long-Term Memory
Lost?
A MODEL OF INFORMATION
PROCESSING

Chunking


Maintenance Rehearsal:


Grouping individual bits of information in a
meaningful way
Using mental and verbal repetition to hold
information in short-term memory for immediate use.
Elaborative Rehearsal:

Encoding new information in long-term memory by
consciously relating it to already stored (prior)
knowledge.
KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE
DomainGeneral
Declarative
(knowing that)
Procedural
(knowing how)
Conditional
(knowing when)
DomainSpecific
THE SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY
Why do we forget?
Or did you forget!?
WHY WE FORGET
Decay (memory trace weakens over time)
Synapses, like muscles, atrophy when not used
Inaccessibility (inadequate retrieval cues)
Cue-dependent forgetting
Blocking (retroactive and proactive)
Brain tries to retrieve information but another
memory interferes with it (e.g. tip of tongue
phenomenon)
Suppression (intentional and subconscious)
Repeatedly blocking thoughts of experiences until they can
no longer retrieve the memory
COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS:
THREE ADDITIONAL “SINS” OF MEMORY
Misattribution -- attributing a memory to an incorrect
source (e.g., we hear something from a friend, but we think
we heard it on the radio.)
Suggestibility -- implanted memories arise as a result of
leading questions or leading suggestions
Bias -- retrospective distortions produced by current
knowledge and belief (i.e., when what we know, believe and
feel in the present skews our reconstruction of the past).
**Memory is not a tape or video recorder; it's a reconstruction
that uses bits of information from the past and combines
that with what we currently know and believe.
Excerpted from The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers (2002) by Daniel L. Schacter
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
 Get
students’ attention!
 Allow time for rehearsal/practice
 Help students elaborate
 Arrange memorable learning experiences
 Use images, pictures, visual representations
 Organize information
 Teach conditional knowledge
 Encourage “learning by doing”
TELL ME MORE…
How would you use information processing
ideas in your classroom?
How would you gain and maintain the attention
of your students?
Imagine you were asked by a parent to identify
what you feel is effective teaching. Using your
knowledge of the Information Processing Model
of Memory, respond to this parent.
https://www.cia.gov/csi/books/19104/figure10.gif
LEARNING LIKE A HUMAN
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Key Concepts and Questions
What is constructivism?
What are the major perspectives and
common elements?
How can teachers create constructivist-based
learning environments?
CONSTRUCTIVISM
“a vast and wooly area in contemporary psychology,
epistemology, and education” (Von Glaserfeld, 1997, p. 204).
“the learner’s contribution to meaning and learning through
both individual and social activity” (Bruning et al., 1999, p.
215; italics added).
How is Knowledge Constructed?
1. By the realities and truths of external world (Info Pro Theory)
2. By internal processes such as assimilation (Piaget)
3. By both internal and external factors (Vygotsky)
CONSTRUCTIVISM: ITS MANY FACES
Many intellectual roots: philosophy, psychology, educators
No single theory: but general consensus that learners play an
active role in building (“constructing”) their own knowledge and
understanding….
Two major forms or camps:
Psychological (Piaget): “First Wave Constructivism”
Emphasis on “how individuals build up certain elements of their
cognitive and emotional apparatus” (Phillips, 1997, p. 153).
Social (Vygotsky): “Second Wave Constructivism”
Emphasis on how “social interaction, cultural tools, and activity
shape individual development and learning” (Woolfolk, p. 324)
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
COMMON ELEMENTS AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES
Complex Learning Environment and Authentic Tasks: Ill-structured, realworld problems that are of emerging relevance to students are explored;
Multiple solutions are possible and derived at via authentic tasks and
activities
Social Negotiation and Shared Responsibility: Students’ points of view are
heard and valued; Responsibility for problem-solving is distributed.
Multiple Representations of Content: The curriculum is adapted to address
students’ prior knowledge, presuppositions, and misconceptions; Problems
are considered using various analogies, examples, and metaphors.
Construction of Conceptual Understanding: Learning is structured around
primary concepts (“big ideas”) of the discipline (or subfield) being
investigated; Students are aware of their own role in constructing knowledge
and making meaning of the world.
Student Ownership: Students, with guidance from the teacher, determine what
and how they learn as well as the products of their learning.
STAR LEGACY LEARNING CYCLE
EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS OF
CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
Cognitive Apprenticeships
Class Discussions
Reciprocal Teaching (RT)
Question Clarify Summarize Predict
Cooperative Learning/Group Work
Peer Tutoring
Community of Learners
Technology-Based Discussions
Instructional Dialogues
Problem/Project-Based Learning
Simulations