Transcript Learning and Memory PP

Learning,Memory, and
Creative Problem Solving
I. Learning: Principles and
Applications
Stimulus
 Response
 Conditioning
 Reinforcement
 Rewards
 Punishment
 Shaping

A. Classical Conditioning

A simple form of learning in which a stimulus
(something that produces a reaction) calls forth
a response (the reaction)
Pavlov
Russian Physiologist who discovered that dogs
could learn to associate one thing with another
(stimulus-response)
Ex. “Pavlov’s dog” experiment involving bell and
food

Salivation
B. Operant Conditioning

Type of learning that takes place as a
result of consequences
“Reinforcement”- process by which a
stimulus increases the chance that a
behavior will occur (ex. “Skinner Box”)
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner
Operant
Response
A form of learning in which a specific action
(an operant response) is made to occur either
more frequently or less frequently by
manipulating its consequences in the
environment.
Change in
Environment
Change in
response
Gets
Dog stands
Dog
food
again
stands
An operant response “operates” on the
environment and causes it to change in some way.
The environment, in turn, causes the behavior
to change in some way.
Operant Conditioning
Versus
Classical Conditioning
In Classical Conditioning, the subject’s response has
no consequences; it produces no change in the
environment.
The dog gets the food after the bell is rung whether
or not he salivates to the bell. His behavior doesn’t
matter.
In Operant Conditioning, the dog has to stand up to
get the food. His behavior does matter.
Positive Reinforcer
Increase the frequency of the behavior
they follow when applied
Ex. “Exercising because being in shape feels
good”
“Studying a subject because the
material is interesting”

Negative Reinforcer
Increase the frequency of the behavior
when something is removed
Ex. “Exercising to avoid getting fat or out of
shape”
“Studying to avoid a bad grade”

Reinforcement Versus Punishment
Reinforcement
Positive
Stimulus is ...
Negative
Punishment
Positive
Negative
Stimulus is ...
Stimulus is ...
Stimulus is ...
Removed
Presented
Removed
Behavior...
Behavior...
Behavior...
Behavior...
Increases
Increases
Presented
Decreases
Decreases
Analyzing Behavior
The
A B C ‘s of Operant Conditioning
Consequences
Key point: reinforcers and punishers are defined by
their effects on behavior, not by your intentions...
While watching the 3 Stooges, 5-year-old Billy pokes his 4year-old sister. His father says, “Stop that!” A minute later,
Billy does it again, and his father yells at him. A few
seconds later, Billy laughs and gives little Kelly another
poke. In terms of operant conditioning, why did the
poking response increase rather than decrease?
Answer: the scoldings are a reinforcer.
What if…
Billy’s father leaves the room for a few
minutes to answer the telephone. While
he is out of the room, Billy stops poking
his sister. But when his father comes
back in, Billy starts doing it again. Why?
Punishment






Unwanted events that decrease the frequency of
the behavior they follow when they are applied.
Some effects:
doesn’t teach alternatives
Must be consistent to work
Can create anger/hostility
Can create the opposite effect
Can confuse
Shaping

Application of Operant Conditioning where
the teaching of a complex task is achieved
by rewarding simpler steps in the process
Skinner
Studied behavior using rat in cage deprived of
food (“Skinner Box”)
 Developed an educational method called
“Programmed Learning” based on shaping

Cognitive Factors in Learning
Latent Learning
Learning that remains hidden until it is
needed
 E.C. Tolman concluded that learning takes
place even when not rewarded. Incidental
learning lies dormant until it is needed for
something (ex. rat in maze)

Observational Learning
Knowledge and skill is obtained by
observing and imitating others
 Albert Bandura concluded that this form of
learning accounts for much human
learning (ex. “mimicking parents”)

Media Learning

Many believe that observational learning is
the reason humans are so aggressive is
from over-exposure of violence in the
media (television, computer and video
images)
D. Learning Systems
PQ4R – Study Reading Learning
System
Preview
 Question
 Read
 Reflect
 Recite
 Review

Mind Mapping – Non-traditional
notetaking system
II. Memory
The Memory Span Test
A Measure of the Capacity of
Short-Term Memory
 Your are to read a short list of digits or
letters. Immediately afterwards, you try to
recite all the items in their original order.
P R T Y C U G
You can increase the number of letters
you remember by grouping them into
CHUNKS, like P A R. You can
remember about 7 chunks, regardless
of how many letters they contain.
P
R
F
H
Z
T
K
Forgetting
Memory: The capacity to retain
information over time.
Encoding: the conversion of incoming
information into a form that can be stored
in memory.
 Storage: maintaining information in
memory over a period of time.
 Retrieval: the process of searching for
stored information and bringing it to mind.

Types of encoding:
•Visual encoding - the processing of images
•Acoustic encoding-the processing of sound,
particularly the sound of words
•Semantic encoding - the processing of meaning;
particularly the meaning of words.
Three steps of memory information
processing:
• Encoding- (processing and combining of
received information)
• Storage-(creation of a permanent record
of the encoded information)
• Retrieval-(calling back the stored
information in response to some cue for
use in some process or activity)
7 Steps in the Memory Process
Organize the information
 Intend to remember
 Test yourself repeatedly
 Space out learning
 Several senses
 Overlearn the material
 Study before sleep

Creative Problem Solving
The Matchstick Problem

How would you
arrange six
matches to form
four equilateral
triangles?
The Matchstick Problem

Solution to the
matchstick
problem
The Candle-Mounting
Problem

Using these
materials, how
would you
mount the
candle on a
bulletin board?
The Candle-Mounting
Problem

Solving this
problem
requires
recognizing that
a box need not
always serve as
a container
Connect the dots
using 4 straight lines
Count every " F" in
the following text:

FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT
OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY
COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE
OF YEARS OF PRACTICE.
What if. . .
it rained tennis shoes on weekends?
everyone looked the same?
animals had people for pets?
you had a dragon for a next door neighbor?
cows could fly?
Picasso had painted the Last Supper?
people were magnetic?
everyone lived on their own island?
the oceans were made of chocolate pudding?
everyday at 2:00 PM gravity went haywire for twenty minutes?
nothing could be thrown away?
works of art came to life?
all the art in the world was stolen by aliens?
O Iny srmat people can raed tihs.
Cdnuolt blveiee that I cluod aulacity uesdnatnrd
what I was Rdanieg. The phaonmneal pweor of
the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at
Cmabrigde Uinervtisy.
It deosn’t mttaer in what oredr the ltteers in a
word are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is that the frist
and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae.
The rset can be a taotl mses and you can still raed
it wouthit a porbelm.
This is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed
ervey lteter by istlef,
But the word as a wlohe. Amzanig huh? Yaeh and
I awlyas tghuhot slpeling
was ipmorantt!