Transcript Defining Psychology

Welcome to
Psychology 112
Human Growth and
Development
Instructor: Evette Samaan
Book: Craig, G. J. & Baucum, D.
(2001). Human Development, 9th
Edition.
E-mail: [email protected]
1
History of Psychology
• Psychology is a fairly new science.
• Until the 19th century it was not recognized
as a separate field of study.
• The birth of psychology as a formal science
can be traced back to 1879.
• It was founded by Wilhelm Wundt in
Leipzig, Germany.
• The use of introspection
2
Defining Psychology
• Psychology is the scientific study of
behavior and mental processes and how
they are affected by an organism’s physical
state, mental state, and external
environment.
3
What Mom Knows
• 4 years of age – Mommy can do any thing!
• 8 years of age – My mom knows a lot!
• 12 years of age – My mother doesn’t really
know quite everything!
• 14 years of age – Naturally, Mother doesn’t
know that either!
• 16 years of age – Mother? She’s
hopelessly old-fashioned!
4
What Mom Knows
• 18 years of age – That old woman? She’s way
out of date!
• 25 years of age – Well, she might know a little bit
about it!
• 35 years of age – Before we decide, let’s get
Mom’s opinion!
• 45 years of age – Wonder what Mom would have
thought about it!
• 65 years of age – Wish I could talk it over with
Mom!
5
Defining Lifespan Psychology
• Lifespan psychology is the
field of study that examines
patterns of growth, change,
and stability in behavior that
occur throughout the entire
life span.
6
Age Groups in the Lifespan
• Prenatal
• Infancy (0-2)
• Early Childhood (36 years)
• Middle Childhood
(6-11)
• Adolescence (1219)
• Early Adulthood
(20-30’s)
• Middle Adulthood
(35-45)
• Late Adulthood
(60s-death)
7
What Constitutes a Good Theory
• Provides a framework for unmanageable
collections of information and then
organizes around it, offering explanations
• Provides testable predictions:
– If we can predict with accuracy, we become
more confident that we understand ourselves
– Predictions give rise to further research that can
refine or extend the theory.
8
Issues Relevant to Theories of
Human Development
1- Active Versus Passive Development
2- Stages Verses Continuity in Development
9
1- Active Versus Passive
Development
1- Organismic Theorists
Emphasize active development. Argue that we are
active participants in our own development
2- Mechanistic Theorists
Emphasize passive development. We are driven
primarily by our internal drives and motivations in
conjunction with external pressures produced by
the environment.
10
What Is the Best Answer?
• Our active human minds interact with the
forces of society and nature, and that
interaction determines what we do and who
we become.
11
2- Stages Versus Continuity in
Development
1-Stages
Development occurs “stepwise” in stages that
are qualitatively different, so we achieve
new ways of understanding our world quite
abruptly.
2- Continuity
Some changes are gradual and cumulative.
12
Lifespan Psychology
Theoretical Perspectives
•
•
•
•
•
•
1- Psychodynamic Theories
2- Behavioral Perspective
3- Cognitive Perspective
4- Biological Approaches
5- Systems Approaches
6- Humanistic Approach
13
1-The Psychodynamic Theories
(You Are What You Were)
Freud
Psychoanalysis
a- The Structure of Personality
b- Psychosexual Stages
c- Defense Mechanisms
14
Freud, Psychoanalysis
15
Structure of Personality
• Id:
• Pleasure principle
• Life & death instincts
• Immediate gratification
• Ego
• Reality Principle
• Superego
• Ego Ideal: moral and social standards
• Conscience: the inner voice
16
Structure of Personality
17
Psychosexual Stages
• 1- Oral Stage (0-2)
• 2- Anal Stage (2-3)
• 3- The Phallic Stage (3-6)
• 4- The Latency Stage (6-12)
• 5- The Genital Stage (12-18)
18
Examine the life of a rapist in light
of Freud’s Psychosexual stages
and structure of personality.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
What happened during each stage?
Was he fixated at any stage?
What principle does he operate by?
What structure of personality is dominant?
What is his famous sentence?
Describe him in one word.
Is there a balance between the function of the id
and the superego? Why?
19
Defense Mechanisms
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1- Repression
2- Projection
3- Displacement
4- Regression
5- Denial
6- Sublimation
7- Reaction Formation
20
• Describe the condition this person is in,
in terms of:
–
–
–
–
Defense mechanisms
The condition he/she is in
Whether he/she is liberated
Whether he/she has a clear understanding of the
concept of salvation and the new birth in Christ
21
I Like It Here
They told me on the other side
Of the raging River of Change,
There is nowhere to hide.
But it sounds a bit strange,
Here my feelings are inside,
My heart has a guarded gate, what’s in can’t go
outside,
And no one can investigate.
22
They told me on the other side
Everything will seem clear, turning
on the light inside
Will make the dark disappear.
But it is a long , long ride,
No, thank you my dear,
I need a place to hide.
So, since I like it here,
It’s here where I’ll reside.
23
Change, I truly don’t know,
Why would I go to neverland
Just that I may grow?
Here I know where I stand,
I know how things will go.
Why must I leave my land
Drop my act for a new show?
Change is not drawing near,
’Cause I certainly like it here.
24
Erik Erikson (1909-1994)
Psychosocial Stages
1- Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 ½)
2- Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1 ½ -3)
3- Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)
4- Competence vs. Inferiority (6-12)
5- Identity vs. role confusion (12-18)
6- Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)
7- Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle
adulthood)
8- Ego Integrity vs. Despair (older adulthood)
25
Freud
Erikson
Psychosexual stages
5 stages of development
Sexual motivation
Psychosocial stages
8 developmental stages
Psychological and social
motivation
At each stage there is a
crisis that must be
resolved
Development is an
ongoing process
If issues aren’t resolved,
fixation occurs
End: sexually mature
adult (adolescence)
26
• What happened to these people? In which stage
did the crisis occur?
Someone who is insecure
Someone with low self-esteem
Someone with an inferiority complex
Someone who’s shy
Someone who is insecure about his sexual
orientation
Someone who has difficulty establishing healthy
relationships
Someone with a midlife crisis
Someone who’s terrified of death
27
2- Behaviorism and Learning
Theories
1- Classical Conditioning
2- Operant Conditioning
3- Law of Effect
4- Social-Learning Theory
Ivan Pavlov
B.F. Skinner
Thorndike
A. Bandura
J. Rotter
Tolman
28
Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov
• The environmental impact on
behavior
• Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus/Response
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30
Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning in Real Life
• Learning to like
• Learning to fear
• Accounting for Taste
• Reacting to Medical Treatment
32
Operant Conditioning
• The behavior is more likely or less likely to
occur based on its consequences.
• B. F. Skinner modified Pavlov’s concept.
• Skinner used reinforcement and punishment
to enhance learning.
33
Operant Conditioning
Skinner
34
Behavioral Techniques
Learning
Conditioning
Association between
Environmental Stimuli + Response
Classical Conditioning
Association
Stimulus-Response
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement/
Punishment
35
Behaviorism
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• Puzzle boxes and cats
• Law of Effect
A principle of learning theory stating that a
behavior’s consequences determine the
probability of its being repeated
36
The Social-Learning School
(You Are What You Think & Observe)
• 1- Locus of Control
• Julian Rotter
• 2- Self-efficacy
• Albert Bandura
• 3- Latent Learning
• Edward Tolman
37
Julian Rotter
Locus of Control
• Internal (Internals)
• External (Externals)
• Tend to believe they
are responsible for
what happens to
them
• Tend to believe that
they are victims of
luck, fate, or others
38
Choose Your Locus of Control
• 1- a. Many of the unhappy situations are partly
due to bad luck.
b. People’s misfortunes result from mistakes
they make.
• 2- a. Becoming a success is a matter of hard
work; luck has little or nothing to do with it.
b. Getting a job depends mainly on being in
the right place at the right time.
39
Reciprocal Determinism in
Locus of Control
• Expectations
Affect
• What happens
(environment &
behavior)
• What happens
Affect
• Expectations
40
Albert Bandura
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•
•
•
Self-efficacy Is Derived from:
Experiences in mastering new
skills
Vicarious experiences provided
by successful people
Encouragement and persuasion
Physiological and emotional state
41
Self-efficacy
42
Reciprocal Determinism in
Self-efficacy
• Belief in your
abilities
Affects
• What happens to
you (Behavior &
environment)
• What happens to
you
Affects
• Your belief in your
abilities
43
Social-Cognitive School
Julian Rotter A. Bandura
(1966, 82, 90) (1994, 1995)
E. Tolman
(1938)
External/Internal Self-efficacy
Locus of control
Latent Learning
Generalized Ex- Observation
pectancies
Imitation
Cognitive Map
Reciprocal
Determinism
Insight
Reciprocal
Determinism
44
• Which comes first, the
biology or the belief?
45
Biology
Belief
• Genesists
• Social Cognitive Theory
• You will be disposed to
seek out situations that
let you express your
biologically influenced
trait.
• You will seek situations
in which you believe you
can behave a certain
way.
• You are an active person
then you play sports
• You believe you’re good
in sports then you play
sports
46
3- The Cognitive Perspective
Piaget
Cognitive Development
Vygotski
Social-Cognitive
Information Processing Theory
47
Piaget
Constructivism
Children think and learn in ways different from
adults.
They process information in quantity and quality
All that we know of reality is based on our mental
constructions or ideas
We don’t passively discover ready-made knowledge,
we actively construct knowledge
48
Piaget
1- Knowledge = motor behavior
2- Universal stages in a fixed order
3- Qualitative and quantitative acquisition of
knowledge
4- Mental Structures or schemes
5- Two Principles:
Assimilation
Accommodation
49
Piaget
Mental functioning
Assimilation
What you do when you fit new
information into your present system
of knowledge or mental schemas
(categories of things and people)
Accommodation
Changing and modifying your new
schemas
50
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of
Development
• 1- Sensorimotor Stage
• 2- Preoperational Stage
• 3- Concrete Operations
• 4- Formal Operations
51
Vygotski
Social-Cognitive Theory
We understand the world only by learning the
shared meanings of others around us.
Guided participation enables us to
understand more and more about the world.
2 Levels of Cognitive Development
a. The child’s actual developmental level
b. The child level of potential development
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Vygotski
Zone of Proximal Development
• The distance between what a child can do
alone and what a child can do with the help
of others
• Children develop through participation in
activities slightly beyond their competence
with the help of adults or older children
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Information-Processing Theory
• A theory of human development that uses
the computer as an analogy for the way the
human mind receives, analyzes, and stores
information
54
Information-Processing Theory
• Encoding
•
Recorded in memory
(Keyboard)
• Storage
•
Saved in memory
(on hard drive)
• Retrieved
•
Brought into awareness
(on screen)
55
4- The Biological Perspective
(You Are What You’re Born)
1- Ethology
2- Evolutionary Psychology
3- Developmental Neuroscience
56
Ethological Theories
Konrad Lorenz
• Behavior is influenced by biology.
• Imprinting is the rapid, innate learning
within a limited period of time that
involves attachment to the first moving
object.
• Critical period is a very early period in
development in which certain behaviors
optimally occur.
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58
Evolutionary Psychology
E. O. Wilson
Inclusive Fitness
Survival of the fittest comes in two ways
1- Direct Fitness
The survival of the individual long enough to pass
adaptive characteristics to the next generation
2- Indirect Fitness
Biological relatedness, parents and children, etc.
59
Evolutionary Psychology
• Dates back to Darwin and The Origin of Species
and was extensive in the writings of the
ethologists
• Evolution: The process through which species
change across generations
• Pinker noted that it is a blend of cognitive
psychology and evolutionary biology with
emphasis on the human mind as an organ that has
evolved like any other.
60
Developmental Neuroscience
The study of the development of brain
structures and the relations between brain
structures and functions and behavior
61
5- Systems Approaches
•
•
How systems evolve and change
The family is a complex interacting
system in which each member influences
each member with regard to functioning
and development.
a. Contextualism
b. Ecological Systems Theories
62
Ecological Approach
4 levels of environment that simultaneously
influence individuals
• 1- Microsystem
• 2- Mesosystem
• 3- Exsosystem
• 4- Macrosystem
63
Contextualism
The view that environmental, social,
psychological, and historical factors interact
to determine development
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6- The Humanist &
Existentialist Theories
• Abraham Maslow (19081970)
• Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
• Rollo May (1909-1994)
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Abraham Maslow
• Hierarchy of Needs
1- Safety & Physiological Needs
2- Emotional & Psychological Needs
3- Self-acctulization
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Carl Rogers
• Congruence
– Relationship between self and organism
• Unconditional Positive Regard
• Self-fulfillment
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Congruence
Self = Organism
Self
Organism
Your conscious view of
yourself
The way you want to be
based on peer,
parental, and societal
pressures
Sum of all of your
experiences
Who we really are
Others and the
environment give us
feedback on who we
really are
69
Existentialism
Rollo May
• Difficult and Tragic Aspects of
the Human Condition
• Freedom of Choice
• Absence of any obvious
meaning or sense to life
70
Which Approach is Right?
Consider the behavior of an alcoholic person.
•
•
•
•
•
What led to this lifestyle?
What are the factors to be considered?
Biological
cultural
Social/family cognitive
Emotions
personality
71
Song
The Greatest Love of All
I believe the children are our future;
Teach them well and let them lead the way.
Show them all the beauty they possess
inside.
Give them a sense of pride
to make it easier;
Let the children’s laughter
remind us how we used to be.
72
Everybody is looking for a hero;
People need someone to look up
to.
I never found anyone who fulfilled
my needs;
A lonely place to be
And so I learned to depend on me.
I decided long ago
Never to walk in anyone’s shadow.
is happening to me.
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If I fail, if I succeed,
At least I lived as I believe.
No matter what they take from me,
They can’t take away my dignity;
Because the greatest love of all
Is happening to me
I found the greatest love of all
inside of me.
The greatest love of all
is easy to achieve.
Learning to love yourself
Is the greatest love of all.
74
What theory does the song represent?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Is she self-actualized?
Did she have unconditional positive regard?
Where her psychological needs met?
What did she do with her free will?
What is her locus of control?
Describe her self-efficacy now.
Is she on her way to self-actualization, or she is
stuck somewhere in the hierarchy of needs?
75
Who or Which Theory would most
likely State the Following Statements
Choose from the following:
Freud, Wilhelm Wundt, Psychodynamic
psychologist, Jean Piaget, Carl Rogers,
Abraham Maslow, Bandura, Rotter, Lorenz,
existentialism, humanism, ecological,
Erikson, Skinner, Pavlov, social-learning,
Thorndike
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1- My theory emphasizes the unconscious dynamics within
the individual.
2- I reject that behavior is determined by unconscious
dynamics or the environment.
3- I say that people have freedom of choice, but this freedom
entails anxiety.
4- I believe that people can reach their full potential when
treated with unconditional positive regard.
5- I would like to call my psychology the “third force.”
6- My psychology compares the human brain to a computer.
7- I believe that fully functioning people show congruence or
harmony between self and organism.
8- According to me, sexuality is very important in
development.
9- I believe that people develop over the life span in 8 stages
77
10-I talk about the hierarchy of needs.
11-I talk about imprinting.
12-People learn by observation and insight.
13-I talk about the locus of control.
14-I talk about the reciprocal determinism in selfefficacy.
15-I believe that the structure of personality consists
of the id, ego, and superego.
16-There are 4 levels of the environment:
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
macrosystem.
17-The study of the relations between brain
structures and functions and behavior.
18-I established the first psychological lab.
78
19-I talk about the law of effect.
20-I coined the expression “classical conditioning.”
21-I coined the expression “operant conditioning.”
22-Learning occurs in the environment in which
stimuli elicit responses.
23-I experimented with dogs to measure the amount
of saliva they produced when listening to the
sound of a bell.
24-I talk about 4 stages of cognitive development.
25-Children acquire knowledge in a quantitative as
well as qualitative manner.
79