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Components of Academic Learning Time
Figure 13.1
ALLOCATED TIME
300 minutes
Reduced by interruptions, transitions, late starts, early closings,
absenteeism, and other noninstructional activities.
INSTRUCTIONAL TIME
Average range = 50% to 90% of allocated time
Proportion for sample class = 45%
135 minutes
Reduced by inattentiveness and disruptiveness
ENGAGED TIME
Average range = 45% to 90% of instructional time
Proportion for sample class = 85%
115 minutes
Reduced by inappropriateness of task for student
ACADEMIC LEARNING TIME
Average range = 40% to 90% of engaged time
Proportion for sample class = 65%
75 minutes
From Maribeth Gettinger, Best Practices. Copyright © 1990 the National Association of School Psychologists. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition.
73 Elliott,
Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Bloom’s Theory of School Learning
Figure 13.3
STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS
Cognitive entry behaviors
Affective entry behaviors
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Kinds of achievement
Rate of learning
Affective outcomes
QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION
Learning task
Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition.
74 Elliott,
Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Instructional Functions
Table 13.1
1. Daily Review and Checking Homework
Checking homework (routines for students to
check each other’s papers)
Reteaching when necessary
Reviewing relevant past learning (may
include questioning)
Review prerequisite skills (if applicable)
2. Presentation
Provide short statement of objectives
Provide overview and structuring
Proceed in small steps but at a rapid pace
Intersperse questions within the demonstration to check for understanding
Highlight main points
Provide sufficient illustrations and concrete
examples
Provide demonstrations and models
When necessary, give detailed and redundant
instructions and examples
3. Guided Practice
Initial student practice takes place with teacher
guidance
High frequency of questions and overt student
practice (from teacher and/or materials)
Questions are directly relevant to the new
content or skill
Teacher checks for understanding (CFU) by
evaluating student responses
During CFU teacher gives additional explanation, process feedback, or repeats explanation—where necessary
All students have a chance to respond and
receive feedback; teacher ensures that all
students participate
Prompts are provided during guided practice
(where appropriate)
Initial student practice is sufficient so that
students can work independently
Guided practice continues until students are
firm
Guided practice is continued (usually) until a
success rate of 80 percent is achieved
From Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens, “Teaching Functions.” Reprinted with permission of Simon & Schuster Macmillan Handbook of Research on
Teaching, Third Edition, Merlin C. Wittrock, Editor. Copyright © 1986 by the American Educational Research Association.
Note: With older, more mature learners, or learners with more knowledge of the subject, the following adjustments can be made: (1) the size of the step
in presentation can be larger (more material is presented at one time), (2) there is less time spent on teacher-guided practice and (3) the amount of overt
practice can be decreased, replacing it with covert rehearsal, restating and reviewing.
75
Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition.
Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Instructional Functions
Table 13.1 (Continued)
4. Correctives and Feedback
Quick, firm, and correct responses can be followed
by a question or a short acknowledgement of
correctness (“That’s right”)
Hesitant correct answers might be followed by
process feedback (i.e., “Yes, Linda, that’s right
because…”)
Student errors indicate a need for more practice
Monitor students for systematic errors
Try to obtain a substantive response to each
question
Corrections can include sustaining feedback (i.e.,
simplifying the question, giving clues), explaining
or reviewing steps, giving process feedback, or
reteaching the last steps
Try to elicit an improved response when the
first one is incorrect
Guided practice and corrections continue until the
teacher feels that the group can meet the
objectives of the lesson
Praise should be used in moderation, and specific
praise is more effective than general praise.
5. Independent Practice (Seatwork)
Sufficient practice
Practice is directly relevant to skills/content
taught
Practice to overlearning
Practice until responses are firm, quick, and
automatic
Ninety-five percent correct rate during
independent practice
Students alerted that seatwork will be checked
Student held accountable for seatwork
Actively supervise students, when possible
6. Weekly and Monthly Reviews
Systematic review of previously learned material
Include review in homework
Frequent tests
Reteaching of material missed in tests
From Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens, “Teaching Functions.” Reprinted with permission of Simon & Schuster Macmillan Handbook of Research on
Teaching, Third Edition, Merlin C. Wittrock, Editor. Copyright © 1986 by the American Educational Research Association.
Note: With older, more mature learners, or learners with more knowledge of the subject, the following adjustments can be made: (1) the size of the step
in presentation can be larger (more material is presented at one time), (2) there is less time spent on teacher-guided practice and (3) the amount of overt
practice can be decreased, replacing it with covert rehearsal, restating and reviewing.
76
Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition.
Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Desired Characteristics of Objectives
Table 13.3
Characteristic
Meaning
Specified content
Content should be precisely stated in behavioral
terms.
Specified outcome
Students’ behavior as a result of learning, should
be stated as observable outcomes.
Specified level of performance
Not only should expected student behavior be
specified, but the exact degree of attainment
should be clear to both teacher and students.
Specified outcome in clear,
exact terms
Verbs such as name, identify, classify, order, avoid,
and understand should be used.
Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition.
77 Elliott,
Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Instructional Theories
Table 13.8
Name
Basis
Emphasis
Application
Bloom
Educational research
Mastery learning
Entry behaviors
Time on task
Learning outcomes
Prerequisite skills
Learning tasks
Achievement levels
Instructional processes
Bruner
Cognitive development
Theoretical base
Optimal sequence
Modes of representation
Readiness, motivation,
acquisition,
transformation,
evaluation
Gagne
Information processing
Instructional events
Learning outcomes
Learning
Retention
Transfer
Hunter
Decision making
Adaptive teaching
Instructional decisions
Formulation objectives
Direct instruction
Enhanced achievement
Markle
Operant conditioning
Active responding
Errorless learning
Immediate feedback
Programmed
instruction
Behavior analysis
Skinner
Operant conditioning
Defined objectives
First instance
Sequential steps
Controlled responses
Reinforcement
Programmed
instruction
All aspects of behavior
Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition.
78 Elliott,
Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Eleven Big Ideas in Effective Teaching

Teachers communicate clear and high expectations for student learning.

Standards for classroom behavior are explicitly communicated.

Classroom routines are smooth and efficient.

Students are carefully oriented to lessons.

Instruction is clear and developmentally appropriate.

Instructional groups are based on instructional needs of students.

Learning progress is monitored frequently.

Teachers review and reteach when necessary.

Learning time must be increased.

Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive.

Incentives and rewards are used to promote excellence.
Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition.
79 Elliott,
Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.