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Introduction to Sociology Unit 1 What is Science? Science: The study of various topics using logical progression and experimentation. Includes: ◦ Natural Sciences Biology, Anatomy & Physiology, Medicine, etc. ◦ Social Sciences Psychology Social Psychology Sociology Anthropology Archaeology Linguistics Cultural Anthropology Human Ecology Economics Political Science Politics Government Sociological Study Theory: A set of ideas or relationships studied using scientific research methods ◦ More on this & Research Methods in the next chapter! The BIG DEBATE in Sociological Research: ◦ Value-Free vs Commitment to Reform Development of Sociology Historical Events ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Exploration of new areas 18th Century - European Enlightenment 19th Century - Industrial Revolution 1825 – French Ministry of Justice report of Justice & Criminal Statistics 1833 – André Michel Guerry’s Moral Statistics of France Stability within one city Variability between cities Chicago School 1842 – 1st Dr. of Sociology from University of Chicago University of Chicago became the Chicago School – ULTIMATE Social Science Institution Founded on the research of… Robert Park Lester Ward George Herbert Mead Auguste Comte “Father of Sociology” Coined “Sociology” as a term Two areas for research: Social Statistics: Order and stability Social Dynamics: Reaction to change Auguste Comte “Father of Sociology” Coined “Sociology” as a term Two areas for research: Social Statistics: Order and stability Social Dynamics: Reaction to change 3 Stages of Societal Development ◦ Theological Stage ◦ Metaphysical Stage ◦ Scientific Stage Jeremy Bentham British lawyer focusing on social reform law Believed government was just a metaphor for social control Famous/Inspiring Quote that influenced future sociologists.. ◦ “The community is a fictitious body composed only of its individual members, and thus the interest of the community is no more than the sum of the interest of the individual members who compose it.” Thomas Hobbes Philosopher focusing on politics Believed social order comes from a need to escape/avoid conflict Important question posed: How can people live together and still escape the fear of civil conflict? Major Perspectives of Sociology 3 Broad Categories of Sociology ◦ Functionalist Perspective ◦ Conflict Perspective ◦ Interactionist Perspective Functionalist Perspective Core Belief: ◦ The individual parts of a society maintain the society as a whole Functionalist Perspective Society is seen as: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Stable Integrated System Members agree on basic values Change is disruptive unless slow Functionalist Perspective Focus of Study: ◦ End consequence, not purpose of change Functionalist Perspective Types of Functions: ◦ Manifest Function: The intended consequence ◦ Latent Function: An unintended consequence Functionalist Perspective Major Theorists: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Herbert Spencer Emile Durkheim Talcott Parsons Robert Merton Herbert Spencer Focus of Study: ◦ Social order ◦ Social change Major Theory: ◦ Social Darwinism Emile Durkheim Focus of Study: ◦ Social order ◦ Shared values and beliefs ◦ Religion and ritual Major Theory: ◦ Causes of Suicide Egotistic Suicide: Disconnection Altruistic Suicide: For the good of society Fatalistic Suicide: Powerlessness Anomic Suicide: Lack of social order Talcott Parsons Focus of Study: ◦ Social order ◦ Balance and functions of society Major Theory: ◦ Equilibrium Robert Merton Focus of Study: ◦ Function of the pieces of society ◦ Integration of theory and empirical research Major Theory: ◦ Middle-Range Theory Conflict Perspective Core Belief: ◦ Change in society is due to conflict between individuals, groups, etc. Conflict Perspective Society is seen as: ◦ Constantly changing ◦ Permanently in conflict ◦ “Faking it” when apparently in agreement ◦ “Forced” to conform and comply by the powerful Conflict Perspective Focus of Study: ◦ Conflict among groups leading to change Tension Competition Change ◦ Change can be good or bad! Conflict Perspective Major Theorists: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Karl Marx C. Wright Mills Ralf Dahrendorf Randall Collins Karl Marx Focus of Study: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Philosophy Economics Political Science History Major Theory: ◦ Class Conflict Strongly Influenced: ◦ Socialism ◦ Communism C. Wright Mills Focus of Study: ◦ Conflict as a fact of life Major Theory: ◦ Sociological Imagination: 3 pieces connecting the individual & society History: Events Biography: Connections of history & the individual Social Structure Ralf Dahrendorf Focus of Study: ◦ Social order ◦ Class designations Major Theory: ◦ Class Conflict in Industrial Society Interesting Fact: Lived through NaziGermany and was encamped for anti-socialist and anti-Nazi activities Randall Collins Focus of Study: ◦ Non-Marxist Conflict ◦ Racial Inequality ◦ Violence Major Theory: ◦ None yet – but he’s still going strong! Interactionist Perspective Core Belief: ◦ Society is developed on the interactions between the individuals in the society. Interactionist Perspective Society is seen as: ◦ Ever-changing & evolving ◦ Dependent on the individual ◦ Based on symbolic interaction Interactionist Perspective Focus of Study: ◦ Individual behavior ◦ Reactions to the behaviors of others ◦ Mechanics of daily life Interactionist Perspective Major Theorists: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Max Weber George Herbert Mead Erving Goffman George Homans Max Weber Focus of Study: ◦ Value-Freedom Studies ◦ Social change & religion Major Theory: ◦ Capitalism George Herbert Mead Focus of Study: ◦ The individual’s interactions within society Major Theory: ◦ Founded the perspective of Social Psychology Erving Goffman Focus of Study: ◦ The individual’s “roles” in society Major Theory: ◦ Dramaturgical Perspective: Behavior as a performance! Front Stage: Performing for an audience Back Stage: Other performers are present, but no audience Outside: No audience, but aware of potential Borders: Controlling who has access to the performance George Homans Focus of Study: ◦ Behavior based on consequences Major Theory: ◦ Social Exchange Theory Other Theories Peter Berger ◦ “Debunking” true meaning Lester Ward ◦ Social progress through sociological knowledge ◦ 1833 book Dynamic Sociology Stated that a benevolent government, universal education, elimination of class, and freedom of poverty are required for society to progress Other Theories Robert Park ◦ Believed societies are interactive and dynamic ◦ Started the study of human ecology George Simmel ◦ Believed in the “free spirit” consumed by socialization to societies’ rules ◦ Posed theory of dialectical tension. Other Theories W.E.B. DuBois ◦ Human rights activist ◦ 1899 book The Philadelphia Negro analyzed class, race, and social strata in US Paul Lazarsfeld ◦ Founded Columbia University’s Bureau of Applied Social Research ◦ Studied decision-making processes and influence of mass media ◦ Funded through “unethical” grants Other Theories Ida Wells-Barnett ◦ Early feminist ◦ Believed societies could not be judged on their claimed principles, but whether their actions match up. Jane Addams ◦ Founded the Hull House in 1889 – “Teach by example, practice cooperation, and practice social democracy” ◦ Believed class issues could be solved by forcing proximity Related Psychological Theories Ecological Approach Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Social Learning Moral Development Ecological Approach Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner States that development occurs as a result of interactions with the environment. Based on ecological models of ecosystems ◦ Human development occurs as we try to survive the ecosystem of our world! ◦ Each context that impacts development has its own level in the model. Ecological Approach Individual: Factors directly impacting the individual. Sex Age Health Ecological Approach Microsystem: Factors impacting development that are very close or in direct contact with the individual. Work School Family Peers Neighborhood Social Clubs Religious Institutions Ecological Approach Mesosystem: Provides a link between each of the individual Microsystem factors. Ex: When you work 40 hours a week it impacts your ability to study for classes, etc. Ecological Approach Exosystem: Factors impacting development that directly impact the Microsystem, but may not directly contact the Individual. Neighbors Friends of Family Mass Media Social Welfare Politics Schools Medical Institutions Ecological Approach Macrosystem: Factors impacting development that directly impact the other systems, but do not have direct contact with the Individual. The individual may not be able to affect this level even if they try. Culture Societal Values Customs Laws Government Ecological Approach Chronosystem: This level considers the impact of time and major life events on the individual. Births Deaths Marriage Divorce Job Changes Moving Sociocultural Changes with time (ex. WOMEN in the work force!) Classical Conditioning Discovered by Ivan Pavlov when studying digestion and salivation in dogs. ◦ This theory applies to things that are already reflexive or innate behaviors. The Discovery: ◦ Morning routine: Enter room, turn on lights, feed dogs. ◦ Expected pattern: Lights go on, food goes down, dogs start drooling. ◦ Unexpected discovery: After a few weeks, the dogs began to drool when the lights came on! Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Developed by B.F. Skinner, who believed that Classical Conditioning was correct, but that behavior was not solely reflexive. Behavior is a learned response, based on the consequences of previous behaviors. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning Increasing or Decreasing a Behavior ◦ Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. ◦ Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Operant Conditioning Giving or Removing a Stimulus: ◦ Positive: Presenting/Giving/Introducing a new stimulus. ◦ Negative: Removing/Taking Away an existing stimulus. Operant Conditioning Positive Negative Our scenario:Your teenage daughter just received her first car and was allowed to attend a social event alone, provided she was home by 10pm. ◦ Reinforcement: She was home at 9:45! Reinforcement Punishment ◦ Punishment: Little Missy strolled in at MIDNIGHT! Extend curfew to 11pm next Work Little Missy to death time. (GIVING time) with added chores. (GIVING unpleasant tasks). Take away curfew all together – she’s trust-worthy! (TAKE AWAY restriction) Take away her car until she learns. (TAKE AWAY valued object – the car!) Operant Conditioning The Schedule of Reinforcemen t can impact learning! Timing: ◦ Interval ◦ Ratio Schedule: ◦ Fixed ◦ Variable Operant Conditioning Extinction: Cessation of a behavior based on a lack of continued reinforcement, experience of a punishment, etc. Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura decided to study learning from a social perspective. Social Learning Theory states that we can learn just by watching others. ◦ We DO NOT have to experience the consequence ourselves! Social Learning Theory The BoBo Doll Study: ◦ Take groups of kids into a room and have them watch a video of a model punching/kicking/hitting a BoBo Doll. ◦ Children see 3 potential endings: Actor is Punished Actor is Rewarded Nothing happens, actor walks off-screen Social Learning Theory ◦ Children are given an opportunity to play with a BoBo doll. Those who saw a reward mimic behaviors right away Those who saw neutral mimic some behaviors. All, INCLUDING those who saw the punishment, can mimic behaviors if asked. Those who saw punishment were able to very closely, if not identically, mimic the video! Social Learning Theory Observational Learning: The ability to learn by watching the behaviors and consequences of others. Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: May be based roughly on the cognitive development of Jean Piaget. ◦ Broken down into 3 Levels, with 2 stages in each level. ◦ Tests to determine which stage the individual are in are dependent on responses to Kohlberg’s Dilemmas. Moral Development Level 1: Pre-Conventional: Moral choices are based on reward and punishment. ◦ Stage 1: Might Makes Right aka Punishment-Obedience Obedience to authority is to avoid punishment, while still furthering self-interest. Very young children ◦ Stage 2: Looking Out For Number One aka Tit-for-Tat aka Quid Pro Quo aka You Scratch My Back, I’ll Scratch Your Moral decisions are based on what the individual can get out of the situation. Young/elementary aged children Moral Development Level 2: Conventional: Moral decisions are based on laws and trying to appear “good” to others. ◦ Stage 3: Good Girl/Nice Boy aka Conformity aka Instrumental Conformity Moral decisions are based on what will make others like and approve of the individual. Middle school aged children. ◦ Stage 4: Law and Order aka Law of the Land aka Judgment Moral decisions are based on being a good, lawabiding citizen. Teenagers and many adults. Moral Development Level 3: Post-Conventional: Moral decisions are based on using one’s own conscience to decide right and wrong. ◦ Stage 5: Social Contract aka Social Conformity aka Social Contract and Individual Rights Moral decisions are based on a social contract stating that the laws in place are for the greater good of society. Any deviance will violate this contract and could lead to chaos. Only a small portion of society. Moral Development Level 3: Post-Conventional: Moral decisions are based on using one’s own conscience to decide right and wrong. ◦ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles aka Universal Principles Moral decisions are based on a universal values and rights that all individuals deserve. Life, Love, Peace, Happiness, Property, Education, etc. Only a handful of people have ever coded into this category. Moral Development Gilligan continued Kohlberg’s theory, stating that.. ◦ Girls tend to develop morals based on compassion and care ◦ Boys tend to develop morals based on justice and judgment