Transcript organizational commitment

Blok Psikologi Sosial
Social Psychology Goes to Work:
Applying Social Psychology to Work
Settings and Entrepreneurship
Copyright 2013, KBK Psikologi Sosial Untar
Social Psychology Goes to Work
• Work-Related Attitudes: Hakikat
Kepuasan kerja dan dampak kepuasan
kerja
• Organizational Citizenship Behavior
(OCB): Prosocial Behavior at Work
• Kepemimpinan: Influence in Group
Settings
• Psikologi Sosial Entrepreneurship
Copyright 2013, KBK Psikologi Sosial Untar
Social Psychology Goes to Work
• Siapakah Psikolog Industri dan
Organisasi itu? —specialize in studying
all forms of behavior and cognition in
work settings
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Work-Related Attitudes
• Kepuasan Kerja—attitudes individuals hold
concerning their jobs
– Penyebab
• Faktor Organisasi
– Being the only member of their ethnicity in the workplace is a
concern for ethnic minority workers.
• Faktor Personal
• The influence of genetic factors on personality
– Result is that job satisfaction is very stable over time and jobs.
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Work-Related Attitudes
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Work-Related Attitudes
– Dampak dampak kepauasan Kerja
• Kepuasan kerja berhubungan sangat lemah dengan
kinerja karyawan
– Many jobs do not allow for variations in performance.
– Many other factors influence job performance.
– Job satisfaction may be a result of good job performance
rather than a cause of it.
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
• Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)—
people helping each other at work that is not a
required part of their jobs
– Bersifat suka rela dan tidak menuntut external rewards.
– Five categories of OCB
• Altruism (helping others perform their jobs)
• Conscientiousness (doing more than is required)
• Civic virtue (showing concern for the organization)
• Sportsmanship (displaying tolerance)
• Courtesy (preventing interpersonal conflicts)
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
– What factors are related to helping at work?
• Belief that one is being treated fairly according to the
principles of distributive, procedural, and interactional
justice (trust in one’s boss and the organization)
– Also influences how much employees are willing to help
customers, as well as coworkers
• Reciprocity / timbal balik (trading favors)
– The outcome may depend on if one is giving or receiving a favor.
• Employees’ perceptions regarding the breadth of their jobs
• Strong organizational commitment (attitudes toward the
organization)
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Think of a time you’ve been
unfairly treated at work
• Were you ever treated rudely or
disrespectfully?
• Were you up for a promotion / raise / job,
and didn’t get it when you thought you
should have?
• Why was it unfair? How did you know?
• How did you react? Did you take action?
Why or why not?
Justice Perceptions are important
• Justice Perceptions: employee judgments
about whether their work situation is fair
• Justice Perceptions in organizations have
been found to be related to:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Job Performance
Withdrawal Behaviors
Counterproductive behaviors
Self-perceptions
Types of Justice Perceptions
• Distributive Justice: perceptions of the fairness
of a particular outcome
• Procedural Justice: perceptions of whether the
process used to make the decision was fair
• Interactional Justice: perceptions of whether
organizational agents implement procedures fairly,
by treating people respectfully and explaining
decisions adequately
Distributive Justice
• Rules for allocating resources
– Equity – resources are distributed to employees
with respect to their abilities or contributions
– Equality – resources are distributed so each
person gets the same outcome, regardless of
their contributions
– Need – resources are distributed to the person
who needs them more
Distributive Justice: Equity
Theory
• Employees compute a ratio of how much
they contribute to the organization and how
much they get back from the company
• Employees choose a coworker and
computes their ratio
• Employees then compare ratios, and react
on the basis of this comparison. Unbalanced
ratios create ‘equity distress,’ which lead to
a variety of responses including changes in
work effort or quality
Procedural Justice
• What are some things that lead to a
procedure being seen as fair?
–
–
–
–
–
–
‘Voice’ – getting a say in things
Consistency
Bias Suppression
Accuracy
Correctability
Ethicality
When is Procedural Justice Most
Important?
Favorable
Reactions
to Org.
High Procedural
Justice
Low Procedural
Justice
Unfavorable
Low
High
Outcome Favorability
Interactional Justice
• Interpersonal component – treating people
with dignity and respect; refraining from
improper remarks or comments
• Informational component – providing
adequate explanations for decisions
Organizational Commitment
• Organizational commitment is defined as the desire on the
part of an employee to remain a member of the
organization.
– Organizational commitment influences whether an
employee stays a member of the organization (is
retained) or leaves to pursue another job (turns over).
• Employees who are not committed to their organizations
engage in withdrawal behavior, defined as a set of actions
that employees perform to avoid the work situation—
behaviors that may eventually culminate in quitting the
organization.
Organizational Commitment and Employee
Withdrawal
Discussion Question
• What creates a desire to remain a member of an
organization?
Types of Commitment
•
Affective commitment – a desire to remain a member of an organization due to an
emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that organization.
– You stay because you want to.
•
Continuance commitment - a desire to remain a member of an organization because
of an awareness of the costs associated with leaving it.
– You stay because you need to.
•
Normative commitment - a desire to remain a member of an organization due to a
feeling of obligation.
– You stay because you ought to.
Affective Commitment
• Employees who feel a sense of affective
commitment identify with the organization,
accept that organization’s goals and values,
and are more willing to exert extra effort on
behalf of the organization.
– “She’s committed”
– “He’s loyal”
A Social Network Diagram
The erosion model suggests that
employees with fewer bonds will
be most likely to quit the
organization.
The social influence model
suggests that employees who
have direct linkages with
“leavers” will themselves
become more likely to leave.
Continuance Commitment
• Continuance commitment exists when there is a
profit associated with staying and a cost
associated with leaving.
• Tends to create a more passive form of loyalty.
– Increases to continuance commitment:
• Total amount of investment (in terms of time, effort,
energy, etc.) an employee has made in mastering his work
role or fulfilling his organizational duties
• Lack of employment alternatives
Embeddedness and Continuance Commitment
• Embeddedness summarizes a person’s links
to the organization and the community, his
sense of fit with that organization and
community, and what he would have to
sacrifice for a job change.
– Strengthens continuance commitment by
providing more reasons why a person needs to
stay in his or her current position (and more
sources of anxiety if he or she were to leave).
Embeddedness and Continuance Commitment, Cont’d
Normative Commitment
• Normative commitment exists when there is a sense that staying is the “right”
or “moral” thing to do.
• The sense that people should stay with their current employers may result
from personal work philosophies or more general codes of right and wrong
developed over the course of their lives.
• Build a sense of obligation-based commitment among employees
– Create an obligation that the employee is in the organization’s debt
– Becoming a particularly charitable organization
Withdrawal Behaviors
• Exit - active, destructive response by which an individual
either ends or restricts organizational membership.
• Voice - an active, constructive response in which
individuals attempt to improve the situation.
• Loyalty - a passive, constructive response that maintains
public support for the situation while the individual
privately hopes for improvement.
• Neglect - defined as a passive, destructive response in
which interest and effort in the job declines.
Organizational Commitmen
Low
High
Four Types of Employees
Task
Performance
High
Low
Stars
Citizens
Lone Wolves
Apathetics
Task Performance and Organizational Commitment
• Stars possess high commitment and high performance
and are held up as role models for other employees.
– Likely respond to negative events with voice
• Citizens possess high commitment and low task
performance but perform many of the voluntary
“extra-role” activities that are needed to make the
organization function smoothly.
– Likely to respond to negative events with loyalty
Task Performance and Organizational Commitment,
Cont’d
• Lone wolves possess low levels of organizational
commitment but high levels of task performance
and are motivated to achieve work goals for
themselves, not necessarily for their company.
– Likely to respond to negative events with exit
• Apathetics possess low levels of both
organizational commitment and task performance
and merely exert the minimum level of effort
needed to keep their jobs.
– Respond to negative events with neglect
Attitudes and Helping at Work
• What are your thoughts?
– Have you been an employee in a work environment
in which job satisfaction was low?
• If so, what factors were responsible for creating the low
levels of job satisfaction?
• Did you or your coworkers engage in any behaviors
indicative of feeling dissatisfied with your jobs?
– If so, what were these behaviors?
– What are ways that employers can increase the
amount of organizational citizenship behavior shown
by their employees?
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Kepemimpinan
• Kepemimpinan—Proses memengaruhi yang
dilakukan pemimpin terhadap bawahannya /
anggota kelompok demi pencapaian sasaran
kelompok.
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Leadership
– Why do some people become leaders?
• Great Person Theory of Leadership—leaders possess
certain traits that set them apart from other persons and
that are possessed by all leaders no matter where or
when they live
– Recent research shows that leaders do differ from others.
• Leaders tend to possess the following traits:
– Drive, self-confidence, creativity, leadership motivation, and a
high level of flexibility
– Regarding the “Big Five” dimensions of personality, leaders
tend to be high in extraversion, openness to experience, and
agreeableness.
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Leadership
– What do leaders do?
• Initiating Structure (production orientation)—a key
dimension of leader behavior in which leaders are
primarily concerned with getting the job done
• Consideration (person orientation)—a key dimension
of leader behavior in which leaders focus on
establishing good relations with their subordinates and
on being liked by them
– Leaders who are high on both dimensions may be superior
leaders.
• Other dimensions of leader behavior
– Autocratic (makes all decisions) versus participative dimension
– Directive (micro-manage) versus permissive dimension
» The best style of behavior depends on the situation
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Leadership
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Leadership
– Transformational Leaders—leaders who,
because of several characteristics, exert
profound (besar) effects on their followers
• Viewed as being charismatic, which is a result of
demonstrating:
– Idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation, and individualized consideration
• Also show high levels of self-confidence, excellent
communication skills, an exciting personal style, and
are skilled at impression management
• These leaders wield great influence over many people.
– Followers become more dependent on these leaders while at
the same time they feel more empowered because of them.
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Leadership
– Transactional Leaders—leaders who direct their
groups by rewarding them for desired behavior, by
taking action to correct mistakes or departures
from existing rules, and who generally strengthen
existing structures and strategies within an
organization
• This type of leader is more typical and can be very
effective in most ordinary work settings.
– Transformational leaders appear to perform better
than transactional leaders in uncertain, chaotic work
environments.
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Leadership
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Entrepreneurship
• Entrepreneurs—individuals who recognize an
opportunity for a new business and start one
– Why do some people become entrepreneurs?
• Social factors: Modeling (observational learning)
• Cognitive factors: Optimistic bias, planning fallacy, the
perception of low levels of risk
• Personal factors: High in extraversion, low in openness to
experience
– What influences the success of entrepreneurs?
• Social factors: Social skills (effective at social interaction,
social perception, persuasion, and making good first
impressions)
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Entrepreneurship
• Cognitive factors: Engage in counterfactual thinking
significantly less frequently, focus on the future and
not the past; Good at knowing when to stick with
something and when to switch strategies (i.e., avoiding
the pitfalls of sunk costs)
– Regulatory Focus Theory—in regulating their own
behavior, individuals adopt one of two contrasting
perspectives: a promotion focus, in which they focus on
attaining positive outcomes, or a prevention focus, in which
they focus on avoiding negative outcomes
» Which focus is more effective depends on the
availability of better alternatives
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Leadership and Entrepreneurship
• What are your thoughts?
– Have you encountered good leaders in the
workplace?
• If so, what characteristics made them good leaders in
that work environment?
– What are possible drawbacks of transformational
leaders in the workplace?
– What makes some people likely to become
successful entrepreneurs?
Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon
Why People Join Groups
• Security
• Status
• Self-esteem
• Affiliation
• Power
• Goal Achievement
Stages of Group Development
EXHIBIT
8-2
Group Behavior Model
EXHIBIT
8-4
External Conditions Imposed on
the Group
Imposed Conditions:
• Organization’s overall strategy
• Authority structures
• Formal regulations
• Resource constraints
• Selection process
• Performance and evaluation system
• Organization’s culture
• Physical work setting
Group Member Resources
• Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
– Interpersonal skills
• Conflict management and resolution
• Collaborative problem solving
• Communication
– Personality Characteristics
• Sociability
• Initiative
• Openness
• Flexibility
Group Structure - Roles
• Formal Leadership
– Leadership that is imposed on the group by the
organization.
– Leaders who derive their power from the
positions they occupy in the organizational
structure.
– Formal leaders may or may not also be the
informal leaders of the groups in which they
function.
Group Structure - Roles (cont’d)
Group Structure - Roles (cont’d)
Group Structure - Norms
Classes of Norms:
• Performance norms
• Appearance norms
• Social arrangement norms
• Allocation of resources
norms
Group Structure - Norms (cont’d)
Examples of Cards Used in
Asch’s Study
EXHIBIT
8-5
Group Structure - Norms (cont’d)
Group Structure - Size
Performance
Other conclusions:
• Odd number groups do
better than even.
Group Size
• Groups of 7 or 9 perform
better overall than larger
or smaller groups.
Group Structure - Cohesiveness
Increasing group cohesiveness:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Make the group smaller.
Encourage agreement with group goals.
Increase time members spend together.
Increase group status and admission difficultly.
Stimulate competition with other groups.
Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
Physically isolate the group.
Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness,
Performance Norms, and Productivity
Group Processes
Group Tasks
• Decision-making
– Large groups facilitate the pooling of
information about complex tasks.
– Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating
and facilitating the implementation of complex
tasks.
– Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the
requirement that group processes be effective in
order for the group to perform well.
Group Decision Making
• Strengths
– More complete
information
– Increased diversity
of views
– Higher quality of
decisions
– Increased
acceptance of
solutions
• Weaknesses
– More time
consuming
– Increased pressure
to conform
– Domination by one
or a few members
– Ambiguous
responsibility
Group Decision-Making
Techniques