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TEN STEPS to
IMPROVING COLLEGE READING SKILLS
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SIXTH EDITION
TEN STEPS
to
IMPROVING
COLLEGE READING SKILLS
John Langan
© 2014 Townsend Press
1
Critical Reading
Skilled readers are those who can recognize an author’s
point and the support for that point.
Critical readers are those who can evaluate an author’s
support for a point and determine whether that support is
solid or not.
This chapter will extend your ability to read critically in
three ways:
Separating fact from opinion
Detecting propaganda
Recognizing errors in reasoning
Separating Fact from Opinion
Separating Fact from Opinion
Fact
A fact is information that can be proved true through
objective evidence. This evidence may be physical proof
or the spoken or written testimony of witnesses.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is a statement that is a fact. The fact can be checked
for accuracy and thus proved true.
The Quad Tower is the tallest building in this city.
A researcher could go out and, through inspection, confirm
that the building is the tallest.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is another statement of fact.
Albert Einstein willed his violin to his grandson.
This statement can be checked in historical publications or
with Einstein’s estate.
Separating Fact from Opinion
Opinion
An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that
cannot be objectively proved true. As a result, it is open
to question.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
Here is a statement that is an opinion:
The Quad Tower is the ugliest building in the city.
There’s no way to prove this statement because two people
can look at the same building and come to different
conclusions about its beauty.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
The Quad Tower is the ugliest building in the city.
Ugly is a value word, a word we use to express a value
judgment. Value or judgment words are signals that an
opinion is being expressed. By their very nature, these
words represent opinions, not facts.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
Here is another opinion:
Einstein should have willed his violin to a
museum.
Who says? Not the grandson he willed the violin to. This
is an opinion.
Separating Fact from Opinion
Photo courtesy of John Langan
Which statements on this gravestone are facts? Which one
is an opinion?
Separating Fact from Opinion
Facts
Photo courtesy of John Langan
The statements about the woman’s birth and death and
so forth are facts that can be confirmed.
Separating Fact from Opinion
Facts
Opinion
Photo courtesy of John Langan
Although her relatives may hope that she is “sweetly
sleeping,” there is no way they can know and confirm
this. It is an opinion.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
Five Points about Fact and Opinion
1 Statements of fact may be found to be untrue.
Facts can turn out to be errors, not facts. It is not
unusual for evidence to show that a “fact” is not really
true. For example, it was once considered to be a fact
that the world was flat, but that “fact” turned out to be
an error.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment) often
represent opinions.
Examples of Value Words
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
2 Value words
Value words often express judgments—they are
generally subjective, not objective. While factual
statements report on observed reality, subjective
statements interpret reality.
For example, the observation that it is raining outside
is an objective one. The statement that the weather is bad,
however, is subjective, an evaluation of reality. (Some
people—for example, farmers whose crops need water—
consider rain to be good weather.)
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
3 The words should and ought to often signal opinions.
Those words introduce what some people think should,
or ought to, be done. Other people may disagree.
Examples
Couples should definitely not live together before
marriage.
Couples ought to live together before getting married
to be sure they are compatible.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
4 Don’t mistake widely held opinions for facts.
Much information that sounds factual is really opinion.
An ad may claim that a particular automobile is “the
most economical car on the road today,” a statement that
at first seems factual. But what is meant by economical?
If the car offers the most miles per gallon but the worst
record for expensive repairs, you might not agree that
it’s economical.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact
and opinion.
Our job is to draw upon existing fact and opinion and
to arrive at an informed opinion. The reality is that most
of what matters in life is very complex and cannot be
separated into simple fact and opinion. Our challenge
always is to arrive at the best possible informed opinion.
Separating Fact from Opinion
Fact and Opinion in Reading
In general, textbook authors try to be as factual as
possible. On the other hand, many essays, editorials,
political speeches, and advertisements may contain
facts, but those facts are often carefully selected to back
up the authors’ opinions.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?
A. Last night, a tree outside our house was struck by lightning.
B. The waiters at that restaurant are rude, and the food costs twice
as much as it’s worth.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact?
A. Last night, a tree outside our house was struck by lightning.
Statement A is a statement of fact. You and your
family might have seen or heard the lightning strike, or
you could go outside later and see the type of damage
done to the tree.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is opinion?
A. Last night, a tree outside our house was struck by lightning.
B. The waiters at that restaurant are rude, and the food costs twice
as much as it’s worth.
Statement B is an opinion. Not every customer is
likely to agree that all the waiters are rude and that the
food is overpriced. The word rude is a value word.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?
Which is fact and opinion?
A. There is nothing like a bottle of Coca-Cola to satisfy thirst.
B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small
amount of cocaine, which was then legal.
C. One of the most delicious of soft drinks, Coca-Cola was first
intended to cure various ills, including headaches.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact?
B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small
amount of cocaine, which was then legal.
All the details in statement B are facts that can be
looked up and confirmed in historical records.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is opinion?
A. There is nothing like a bottle of Coca-Cola to satisfy thirst.
B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small
amount of cocaine, which was then legal.
Statement A is an opinion. Many people might prefer
cold water or some other drink as a thirst-quencher.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is fact and opinion?
A. There is nothing like a bottle of Coca-Cola to satisfy thirst.
B. In the late 1890s, when Coke was first sold, it included a small
amount of cocaine, which was then legal.
One of the most delicious of soft drinks, Coca-Cola was first
intended to cure various ills, including headaches.
The first part of the statement is an opinion—not
everyone would consider Coke delicious (a value word.)
The second part of the statement is a fact that could be
confirmed by researching historical records of the time.
Fact, Opinion or Both?
• German shepherds are the scariest dogs alive.
• The dog that bites people the most often,
according to a 27-year-old study, is the
German Shepherd.
• German Shepherds, which always make poor
pets, are used in police work and as guide
dogs for the blind.
• Smoking has been found to be one cause of
lung cancer.
• Executives of corporations that pollute the
environment should be jailed.
• According to scientists, all the water on Earth
has been recycled for millions of years, and we
drink the same water as the dinosaurs did.
• Because many studies have concluded that
smoking is a health hazard, cigarettes should
be banned.
• Scientists predict that one-third of the people
who begin smoking under the age of 18 will
die prematurely because of their habit.
• There’s no illness harder to cope with than
depression.
• Depression is most common among persons
between the ages of 25 and 44.
Practice on Your Own
• Review Test 2 – p. 420
Review Test 2 Answers
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•
•
•
•
•
1. O
2. F
3. F
4. O
5. O
6. F&O
7. F
8. O
9. F
10. O
More Fact & Opinion Practice
• Mastery Test 1 – p. 429-430
• Mastery Test 2 – p. 431-432
Mastery Test 1 Answers
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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1. O
2. F
3. O
4. F
5. F
6. O
7. F
8. O
9. F
10. F&O
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
11. O
12. O
13. O
14. F
15. F
16. O
17. F
18. F&O
19. F
20. O
Mastery Test 2 Answers
•
•
•
•
•
•
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1. F
2. O
3. O
4. F
5. F
6. O
7. O
8. F
9. F&O
10. O
•
•
•
•
•
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11. O
12. F
13. F
14. F+O
15. F
16. F
17. O
18. F
19. F
20. O
Detecting Propaganda
Detecting Propaganda
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are
constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,”
“Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.”
Detecting Propaganda
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are
constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,”
“Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.” Often, they
lack adequate factual support for their points, so they
appeal to our emotions by using propaganda
techniques.
Part of being a critical reader is having the ability to
recognize these propaganda techniques for the emotional
fluff that they are.
Detecting Propaganda
This section will introduce you to six common
propaganda techniques:
Bandwagon
Plain Folks
Testimonial
Name Calling
Transfer
Glittering Generalities
There are other propaganda techniques, but these six
are among the most common. They all use emotional
appeals to distract from the fact they are not providing
solid evidence to support their points.
Detecting Propaganda
1 Bandwagon
The bandwagon technique tells us to buy a product
or support a certain issue because, in effect, “everybody
else is doing it.”
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Here are two examples of real TV ads that have used
the bandwagon appeal:
With appealing music in the background, flashing
scenes show many people wearing the sponsor’s
jeans.
On a beautiful day, almost everyone on the beach
leaves in a hurry in order to attend the sponsor’s sale.
The ads imply that if you don’t jump on the
bandwagon, the parade will pass you by.
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
A. A famous actress explains that she loves to use a certain hair
coloring
B. A cable company claims that more and more people are
switching to it to access the Internet.
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
A. A famous actress explains that she loves to use a certain hair
coloring
B. A cable company claims that more and more people are
switching to it to access the Internet.
The words more and more people suggest that you
had better switch too, or you’ll be left behind.
Detecting Propaganda
2 Testimonial
The idea behind the testimonial approach is that the
testimony of famous people influences the viewers that
admire these people.
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Here are two examples of real ads that use the
appeal of testimonials:
An actor promotes a product intended to help a man’s
sexual performance.
Popular country singers speak out on behalf of certain
political candidates.
The fame of the actor is intended to influence men to
use the product. Similarly, the fame of the popular singers
is intended to influence us vote for those candidates.
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Which ad below uses a testimonial?
A. An ad for a new movie shows people waiting to buy tickets in
a line that extends halfway around the block.
B. A sports star praises the brand of sneakers he is putting on.
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Which ad below uses a testimonial?
A. An ad for a new movie shows people waiting to buy tickets in
a line that extends halfway around the block.
B. A sports star praises the brand of sneakers he is putting on.
B is a testimonial because a “sport star” is endorsing
the sneakers.
Detecting Propaganda
3 Transfer
The most common type of propaganda technique is
transfer, in which products or candidates try to associate
themselves with something that people admire or love.
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
The picture you saw at the beginning of this section
is an example of transfer.
The candidate is hoping that the positive feelings we
have toward the sexy-looking beauty queen and the
patriotism stirred in us by the American flag and the
U.S.A. banner will be transferred to him and get us to
vote for him.
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Here are two examples of real ads that use the
appeal of tranfer:
A beautiful woman in a slinky red dress is shown
driving the sponsor’s car.
A hospital chain uses a portrait of Benjamin Franklin
in its ads and claims that it, like Franklin, stands for
new ideas.
The sponsor hopes we will tranfer the positive feelings
we have toward the beautiful woman to their car. Similarly,
hospital chain hopes we will transfer our positive feelings
about the famous inventor and American patriot Ben
Franklin to their hospitals.
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Which ad below uses transfer?
A. With the tune of “God Bless America” in the background, an
announcer asks viewers to support the home baseball team by
coming out to games.
B. A world-famous bike rider and cancer survivor appears in an
ad for a company that sells anti-cancer medications.
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Which ad below uses transfer?
A. With the tune of “God Bless America” in the background, an
announcer asks viewers to support the home baseball team by
coming out to games.
B. A world-famous bike rider and cancer survivor appears in an
ad for a company that sells anti-cancer medications.
The use of “God Bless America” signals the transfer
technique.
Detecting Propaganda
4 Plain Folks
In the plain folks technique, powerful people present
themselves as ordinary, average citizens. Political
candidates often use the plain folks technique. Similarly,
the presidents of some companies appear in their own ads,
trying to show that their giant corporations are just family
businesses run by ordinary folks.
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Here are two examples of real ads that have used the
appeal of plain folks:
Average-looking American kids are shown at home
trying and enjoying a cereal.
A president of an insurance company is shown with
his family, talking about his concern for their safety
and well-being if he should not be there some day.
In the first ad, the cereal company wants to show us
that its product is enjoyed by average kids just like ours.
In the second ad, the president of the insurance company
wants us to see that he’s just an average guy who worries
about the well-being of his family just like we do.
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
A. A very attractive young woman wraps herself in a robe that has
been washed in a particular brand of laundry detergent.
B. A grandmother, serving a canned vegetable soup to her
grandson, says, “This has all the simple, healthy, and delicious
ingredients I use in my own vegetable soup.”
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
A. A very attractive young woman wraps herself in a robe that has
been washed in a particular brand of laundry detergent.
B. A grandmother, serving a canned vegetable soup to her
grandson, says, “This has all the simple, healthy, and delicious
ingredients I use in my own vegetable soup.”
The grandmother and grandson suggest that the soup is
made and eaten by regular people who cook at home.
Detecting Propaganda
5 Name Calling
Name calling is the use of emotionally loaded
language or negative comments to turn people against
A rival product, candidate, or movement.
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Here are two examples of name calling taken from
real life:
The fast-food industry labels critics of their industry
as “food police,” “cookie cops,” and “the grease
Gestapo.”
During a taste test, consumers described the other
leading brand of spaghetti sauce as “too salty” and
“thin and tasteless.”
Saying the critics are “food police,” “cookie cops,”
and “the grease Gestapo” is name calling. So is saying
the sauce is “thin and tasteless.”
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Which ad below uses name calling?
A. An ad for hard liquor shows a beautiful woman in a strapless
gown having a drink and being admired by several handsome
men.
B. “My opponent has lived in our state for only two years,” says a
candidate for state senator. “Let’s not put an outsider into state
office.”
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Which ad below uses name calling?
A. An ad for hard liquor shows a beautiful woman in a strapless
gown having a drink and being admired by several handsome
men.
B. “My opponent has lived in our state for only two years,” says a
candidate for state senator. “Let’s not put an outsider into state
office.”
Calling the oponent an outsider when he or she has
lived in the state two years is name calling.
Detecting Propaganda
6 Glittering Generalities
A glittering generality is an important-sounding but
unspecific claim about some product, candidate, or cause.
It cannot be proved true or false because no evidence is
offered to support the claim.
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Here are two examples from real ads that use glittering
generalities:
A store ad claims, “Fashions that will bring out the
rainbow in you.”
A canned-food ad boasts of “nutrition for today.”
The statement bring out the rainbow in you but
tells us nothing about the clothing. Similarly the
words nutrition for today tell us nothing about the
food.
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
A. “Ed Dalton—a candidate that really cares,” says the announcer.
B. A well-known athlete says he uses a certain kind of aspirin.
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
A. “Ed Dalton—a candidate that really cares,” says the announcer.
B. A well-known athlete says he uses a certain kind of aspirin.
The words really cares tell us nothing about Ed Dalton.
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• Kiddy Kare is the largest daycare center in
town
• Our competitor’s daycare center is more
concerned about profits than about children.
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• Sureguard sunglasses filter out harmful
ultraviolet rays.
• “I’m proud to wear Sureguard sunglasses,”
says actress Jennifer Barnes. “You’ll love them
too.”
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• In a recent election poll, Margo Levy was
ahead of the other candidate.
• Add your vote to the landslide victory Margo
Levy will win in next week’s election.
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• Twin Oaks is a residential development near
Des Moines, Iowa.
• There’s nothing else quite like Twin Oaks, a
great residential community where you will be
proud to live.
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• As a young man, candidate Alan Wilson had a
variety of jobs working in a department store
and in his family’s TV station.
• As a young man, candidate Alan Wilson
learned what it means to work hard by
spending long hours lifting boxes and
sweeping floors.
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• A college degree opens up job doors.
• Comedian Jerry Klein says, “A college degree
opens up job doors.”
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• I’m voting for Jones because he has had 10
years of experience on the Senate’s
Committee on International Affairs.
• I’ll bet my French poodle and German
Shepherd know more about foreign affairs
than Smith does. My vote goes to Jones.
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• Markey’s Used Cars will be open on the 4th of
July.
• A patriotic march plays, and a giant American
flag waves over a used-car lot. “Celebrate
your freedom of choice on the 4th of July!”
says the announcer. “At Markey’s, we’ll honor
the holiday by making some star-spangled
deals.”
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• The presidential candidate supports our
country’s farmers.
• The presidential candidate has her own small
farm, so she knows the farmers’ concerns.
A. Bandwagon
D. Plain Folks
B. Testimonial
E. Name Calling
C. Transfer
F. Glittering Generalities
• At Triple-A Technical School, you can learn the
skills needed to become a plumber, mechanic
or electrician.
• Set the world on fire with skills you learn at
Triple-A Technical School!
Practice on Your Own
• Review Test 3 – p. 421 (Part A Only)
Review Test 3, Part A Answers
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•
•
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1. B
2. C
3. C
4. B
5. A
More Propaganda Practice
Mastery Test 3 – p. 433-434
Mastery Test 4 – p. 435-436
Mastery Test 3 Answers
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1. A
2. D
3. B
4. D
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. F
9. A
10. B
Mastery Test 4 Answers
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1. B
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. D
6. C
7. F
8. F
9. C
10. B
Detecting Propaganda
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Fallacies are errors in reasoning that take the place
of the real support needed in an argument. The result is a
poorly supported argument.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
A valid point is based
on a rock-like foundation
of solid support.
A fallacious point is
based on a house of cards
that offers no real support
at all.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
You have already seen two common fallacies that were
discussed in Chapter 9, “Argument”:
Changing the subject distracts us from the issue
by presenting irrelevant support—evidence that
actually has nothing to do with the argument.
Hasty generalization is a fallacy in which a point
has inadequate support. Drawing a conclusion
based on insufficient evidence is to make a hasty
generalization.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
This section will introduce you to six other common fallacies:
Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Circular Reasoning
Personal Attack
Straw Man
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Cause
False Comparison
Either-Or
In all of these fallacies, a point is argued, but no true
support is offered for that point.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Circular Reasoning
Part of a point cannot reasonably be used as
evidence to support it. The fallacy of including such
illogical evidence is called circular reasoning or
begging the question.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is a simple example of such reasoning:
Mr. Green is a great teacher because he is so
wonderful at teaching.
The supporting reason (“he is so wonderful at
teaching”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Mr. Green
is a great teacher”). No real reasons have been given—the
statement has merely been repeated.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Mr. Green is a great teacher
he is so wonderful at teaching
The supporting reason (“he is so wonderful at
teaching”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Mr. Green
is a great teacher”). No real reasons have been given—the
statement has merely been repeated.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is another example of such reasoning:
Vitamins are healthful, for they improve your
well-being.
Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument?
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Vitamins are healthful, for they improve your
well-being.
The word healthful, which is used in the conclusion,
conveys the same idea as well-being. We still don’t know
why vitamins are good for us.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is one more example of such reasoning:
Abortion is an evil practice because it is so wrong.
Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument?
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
p
Abortion is an evil practice
because itt is so wrong.
The claim that abortion “is so wrong” simply restates
the idea that it is an evil practice. No explanation is given
for why abortion is evil or wrong.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
A. The government should lower our taxes because taxes are
entirely too high.
B. I’m not going to be paid what I’m worth until I get a boss who
cares about being fair.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
A. The government should lower our taxes because taxes are
entirely too high.
B. I’m not going to be paid what I’m worth until I get a boss who
cares about being fair.
Saying that taxes are too high is merely a different way
of saying that taxes should be lowered.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Personal Attack
This fallacy involves an unfair personal attack on
an individual rather than on his or her public ideas. It
ignores the issue under discussion and concentrates
instead on the character of the opponent.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Here is an example of personal attack:
Senator Brill’s opinions on public housing are
worthless. He can’t even manage to hold his own
household together—he’s been married and divorced
three times already.
Senator Brill’s family life may or may not reflect a
weakness in his character, but it has nothing to do with
the value of his opinions on public housing.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Sometimes personal attacks take the form of accusing
people of taking a stand only because it will benefit
them personally. For instance, here’s a personal attack
on a congressman who is an outspoken member of the
National Organization for Women (NOW):
He doesn’t care about NOW. He supports it only in
order to get more women to vote for him.
This argument ignores the congressman’s detailed
defense of NOW as an organization that promotes equal
rights for both men and women.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
A. Why support Ray O’Donnell’s highway safety proposal? He’s
got the biggest collection of speeding tickets in the district.
B. I feel my salary should be higher because it is so low.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
A. Why support Ray O’Donnell’s highway safety proposal? He’s
got the biggest collection of speeding tickets in the district.
B. I feel my salary should be higher because it is so low.
The statement attacks O’Donnell for his personal
driving habits, not for his highway safety proposal.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Straw Man
The straw man fallacy suggests that an opponent
favors an obviously unpopular cause—when the
opponent really doesn’t support anything of the kind.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Here is an example of straw man. It is a statement made
during a debate on the death penalty.
Ms. Collins opposes capital punishment. But letting
murderers out on the street to kill again is a crazy
idea. If we did that, no one would be safe.
Ms. Collins, however, never advocated “letting
murderers out on the street to kill again.” In fact, she
wants to keep them in jail for life rather than execute
them.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
A. The people who are in favor of gun control are obviously not
concerned about criminals taking control of this fine country.
B. Rose Curtis is a declared lesbian and should not be allowed to
run for public office.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
A. The people who are in favor of gun control are obviously not
concerned about criminals taking control of this fine country.
B. Rose Curtis is a declared lesbian and should not be allowed to
run for public office.
There may be valid reasons for favoring gun control. It is
unlikely that those who do are unconcerned about
criminals taking over the country.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Cause
The fallacy of false cause occurs when one assumes
that because event B follows event A, event B was caused
by event A.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Consider this argument:
The Macklin Company was more prosperous before
Ms. Williams became president. Clearly, she is the
cause of the decline.
(Event A: Ms. Williams became president.
Event B: The Macklin Company’s earnings declined.)
However, Ms. Williams has been president for only a
few months. What other possible causes could have been
responsible for the decline?
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
The Macklin Company was more prosperous before
Ms. Williams became president. Clearly, she is the
cause of the decline.
(Event A: Ms. Williams became president.
Event B: The Macklin Company’s earnings declined.)
Perhaps the policies of the
previous president are just now affecting the company.
Perhaps the market for the company’s product has changed.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
(Event A: Ms. Williams became president.
Event B: The Macklin Company’s earnings declined.)
It’s easy but dangerous to assume that just because
A came before B, A caused B.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
A. I knew I shouldn’t have taken the baby to the park today. Now
he’s got a cold.
B. Of course the legalization of prostitution will work in America.
It has worked in European countries, hasn’t it?
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
A. I knew I shouldn’t have taken the baby to the park today. Now
he’s got a cold.
B. Of course the legalization of prostitution will work in America.
It has worked in European countries, hasn’t it?
There are many ways the baby could have caught a cold
besides being taken to the park.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Comparison
In the error in reasoning known as false comparison,
the assumption is that two things are more alike than they
really are.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Consider this argument:
It didn’t hurt your grandfather to get to work without
a car, and it won’t hurt you either.
To judge whether or not this is a false comparison,
consider how the two situations are alike and how they
differ.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
It didn’t hurt your grandfather to get to work without
a car, and it won’t hurt you either.
They are similar in that both involve a young person’s
need to get to work.
But the situations are different in that the grandfather
didn’t have to be at work an hour after his last class. In fact,
he didn’t go to school at all. In addition, his family didn’t
own a car he could use.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
It didn’t hurt your grandfather to get to work without
a car, and it won’t hurt you either.
The differences in this case are more important than the
similarities, making it a false comparison.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
A. After visiting Hal today, I came home with a headache. I must
be allergic to his dog.
B. I don’t know why you’re so worried about my grades. Albert
Einstein had lousy grades in high school, and he did all right.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
A. After visiting Hal today, I came home with a headache. I must
be allergic to his dog.
B. I don’t know why you’re so worried about my grades. Albert
Einstein had lousy grades in high school, and he did all right.
There are many differences between Albert Einstein
and the person making this statement.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
Either-Or
It is often wrong to assume that there are only two
sides to a question. Offering only two choices when more
actually exist is an either-or fallacy. While some issues
have only two sides, most have several.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Consider this argument:
People opposed to unrestricted free speech are really
in favor of censorship.
This argument ignores the fact that a person could
believe in free speech as well as in laws that prohibit
slander or that punish someone for falsely yelling “Fire!”
in a crowded theater.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
A. School prayer is a positive force in parochial schools, so why
not try it in our public schools?
B. If you don’t study at least three hours a night, you’re not really
serious about being in college.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
A. School prayer is a positive force in parochial schools, so why
not try it in our public schools?
B. If you don’t study at least three hours a night, you’re not really
serious about being in college.
There maybe other reasons for not studying three
hours a night besides not being serious about college.
For example, a student might have to work at night to
pay for college.
A. Circular Reasoning
B. Personal Attack
C. Straw Man
• Supporters of state lotteries apparently don’t
think people should work hard for what they
get. They believe it’s better to get something
for nothing.
A. Circular Reasoning
B. Personal Attack
C. Straw Man
• Earl will make a lousy class treasurer because
he’s just a conceited jerk.
A. Circular Reasoning
B. Personal Attack
C. Straw Man
• Pollution is wrong because it dirties the
environment.
A. Circular Reasoning
B. Personal Attack
C. Straw Man
• Mr. Vincent supports sex education in junior
high school. Maybe he thinks it’s okay for 13year-olds to be having babies, but I don’t
agree.
A. Circular Reasoning
B. Personal Attack
C. Straw Man
• Watering new grass is important, since new
lawns need a lot of water.
A. False Cause B. False Comparison
C. Either-Or
• Stay away from Gary’s filthy dorm room. After
the last time I went there to study, I actually
got a rash.
A. False Cause B. False Comparison
C. Either-Or
• Did you tell the boss off, or did you act like a
wimp and agree?
A. False Cause B. False Comparison
C. Either-Or
• There’s a sign in the dorm lounge saying that
excessive alcohol is dangerous. Well, so what?
Too much pizza can be dangerous, too.
A. False Cause B. False Comparison
C. Either-Or
• Do you always tell the truth, or are you a liar?
A. False Cause B. False Comparison
C. Either-Or
• Last time there was an eclipse, the stock
market went down. I’m going to sell all my
stock before next week’s eclipse takes place.
Practice on Your Own
• Review Test 3 – Part B – p. 422
Review Test 3 Part B Answers
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6. B
7. A
8. C
9. A
10. B
More Reasoning Errors Practice
• Mastery Test 5 – p. 437-438
• Mastery Test 6 – p. 439-450
Mastery Test 5 Answers
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1. B
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. A
6. C
7. B
8. A
9. C
10. A
Mastery Test 6 Answers
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•
•
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•
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1. C
2. B
3. A
4. B
5. C
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. A
10. C