Transcript European Politics, Part 2

European Politics,
Late 19th Century
1850-1914
Legacy of the Congress of
Vienna
• Criticism
• Re-established the
Conservative Order
• Neglected
Nationalism and
Civil Liberties
• Destroyed the
achievements of
the French
Revolution
• Legacy
• Condemned
Slavery
• Created the
“Concert of Europe”
• Similar to the
League of
Nations
• Created a Balance
of Power
• Decades of lasting
peace.
Crimean War, 1854-1856
• In 1853, Russia invaded
Turkish territory in the
Balkans
• In 1854, France and Britain
declared war on Russia
• Austria remained neutral
• War was badly planned by
both sides, esp. Russia
• After Nicholas I’s death,
Czar Alexander II sued for
peace
• Treaty of Paris, 1856
Crimean War, 1854-1856
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The Crimean War destroyed the Concert of Europe
Austria and Russia became enemies
Russia withdrew from European affairs
Britain withdrew from European affairs
Austria became diplomatically isolated
Only Louis Napoleon and France gained prestige from the
Crimean War
• Louis Napoleon began to support national movements to
make France the natural leader of free European states
France, 1850-1871
• From 1848 to 1851, Louis
Napoleon worked to win the
support of the people, the
army, and the Catholic Church
• Faced considerable opposition
from the conservatives
(royalists) in the National
Assembly
• Coup d’etat to restore
universal male suffrage –
December 1851
• 1852 Plebiscite – Napoleon III
and the Second French Empire
France, 1850-1871
• Authoritarian government
• Napoleon III controlled armed
forces, police and civil service;
only he could introduce
legislation and declare war
• Legislative Corps – universal
male suffrage
• 1852-1857 – Economic boom
• Napoleon III invested in
industrialization,
transportation networks, social
welfare programs,
reconstructed Paris
France, 1850-1871
• Strong interest in public opinion
• 1860s – “liberal empire”
• Domestic problems: lower tariff,
Panic of 1857, silkworm disease,
plant lice
• Trade unions were legalized; strikes
allowed
• Legislative Corps was granted more
power; more freedom
• 1870 Plebiscite – French people
rejected parliamentary government
• Foreign policies problems led to his
downfall – Franco-Prussian War,
1870-1871
Napoleon III: Facelift for Paris
France, 1871-1914
• Franco-Prussian War brought an end to Napoleon III and the
Second Empire in 1871
• Creation of the National Assembly and Paris Commune
• Massacres in Paris, split between middle and working classes
• Constitution of 1875 established the Third Republic, bicameral
legislature
• France failed to develop a strong parliamentary system because
of the existence of a dozen political powers; need for coalitions
• Between 1875 and 1914, there were more than 50 changes in
the cabinet (executive ministers)
• Third Republic was threatened by monarchists, the Catholic
Church, and the Army
France, 1871-1914
• Two crises threatened the
survival of the Third Republic in
the 1880s and 1890s
• General Georges Boulanger
Affair, 1889
• Alfred Dreyfus Affair, 1895
• Radical republicans gained
control of the government; army
was purged
• Church and state were officially
separated in 1905
• Alienation of the French
working classes remained a
problem
Victorian England, 1850-1871
• Democratic reforms and
continued economic growth
prevented revolts in Britain
• Exhibition of 1851 (Crystal
Palace)
• Queen Victoria (1837-1901)
• Henry John Temple, Lord
Palmerston (1855-1865)
focused on foreign policy
issues and opposed expanding
the franchise
Conservatives vs. Liberals
Benjamin Disraeli
William Gladstone
(Conservative)
(Liberal)
Victorian England, 1850-1871
• Reform Act of 1867 lowered the monetary requirements for
voting and enfranchised many male urban workers – 1
million to over 2 million voters
• Industrial voters gave the Liberals a victory in 1868
• Both the Liberal and Conservative parties reorganized in
order to manipulate the electorate
• Gladstone’s first administration, 1868-1874 opened civil
service positions to exams rather than patronage, dropped
religious requirements for universities, established the secret
ballot and abolished the practice of purchasing military
positions (Spoils System v. Meritocracy)
• Education Act of 1870 (Elementary Ed. For All) 5-13
Educational Standards: England 1872
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The following are the six Standards of Education contained in the Revised code of Regulations, 1872
STANDARD I
Reading One of the narratives next in order after monosyllables in an elementary reading book used in
the school.
Writing Copy in manuscript character a line of print, and write from dictation a few common words.
Arithmetic Simple addition and subtraction of numbers of not more than four figures, and the
multiplication table to multiplication by six.
STANDARD II
Reading A short paragraph from an elementary reading book.
Writing A sentence from the same book, slowly read once, and then dictated in single words.
Arithmetic The multiplication table, and any simple rule as far as short division (inclusive).
STANDARD III
Reading A short paragraph from a more advanced reading book.
Writing A sentence slowly dictated once by a few words at a time, from the same book.
Arithmetic Long division and compound rules (money).
STANDARD IV
Reading A few lines of poetry or prose, at the choice of the inspector.
Writing A sentence slowly dictated once, by a few words at a time, from a reading book, such as is used
in the first class of the school.
Arithmetic Compound rules (common weights and measures).
STANDARD V
Reading A short ordinary paragraph in a newspaper, or other modern narrative.
Writing Another short ordinary paragraph in a newspaper, or other modern narrative, slowly dictated
once by a few words at a time.
Arithmetic Practice and bills of parcels.
STANDARD VI
Reading To read with fluency and expression.
Writing A short theme or letter, or an easy paraphrase.
Arithmetic Proportion and fractions (vulgar and decimal).
Great Britain, 1871-1914
• Between 1874 and 1914, the Liberal and Conservative
parties alternated in power at regular intervals
• Growth of political democracy and expansion of suffrage
• Reform Act of 1884 enfranchised all taxpayers
• Redistribution Act of 1885 (Response to Demographics)
• Parliamentary Act of 1911
• In 1911, members of the House of Commons began to get
paid – more democratization of Parliament
• Social legislation included giving trade unions the right to
strike, limited work week (56 hours)
• Living and working conditions had improved for industrial
workers
Great Britain, 1871-1914
• Trade unions began to advocate more
radical changes – socialism
• Fabian Socialists
• Neither advocated class struggle or
revolution
• Labour Party in 1900
• Liberal Party began a program of social
welfare to keep support of the workers
• David Lloyd George
• National Insurance Act of 1911
• Workman’s compensation and pension
laws; increased taxes on the wealthy
• These were the first steps toward the
British welfare state
Great Britain, 1871-1914
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Irish question – Act of Union, 1801
Growth of nationalism
In 1869, Gladstone ended the domination of the Church of Ireland
Discontent over British land ownership gave rise to acts of terrorism
Land Act of 1881 was too late (Irish Want Home Rule)
Home Rule Act of 1914
Problems in Northern Ireland – Ulster (A divided Province)
World War I diverted attention away from Irish problems
Dominion/Commonwealth statuses of Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand
• Between 1815 and 1914, Britain made the shift from classical
liberalism (and laissez-faire) to political democracy and socialism
Cuchallain: Origins of The Fighting
Irish
• seanchai (pronounced: shanachie) Irish Story
Tellers
• He stood before the Druids in the Hall of Heroes
and exclaimed "I care not whether I die tomorrow
or next year, if only my deeds live after me".
• "We were heart companions,
We were companions in the woods,
We were fellows of the same bed,
Where we used to sleep the balmy sleep.
After mortal battles abroad,
In countries many and far distant,
Together we used to practice, and go
Through each forest, learning with Scathach".
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THE TOWN I LOVED SO WELL In my memory I will always see The town
that I have loved so well Where our school played ball by the Gas-yard wall
And we laughed through the smoke and the smell Going home in the rain,
running up the dark lane Past the jail and down behind the fountain Those
were happy days, in so many, many ways In the town I loved so well In the
early morning the Shirt Factory horn Called women from Graigeen, The
Moor and The Bog While the men on the dole played a mother's role Fed the
children, and then walked the roads And when times got rough there was
just about enough But they saw it through without complaining For deep
inside was a burning pride For the town I love so well There was music
there in the Derry air Like a language that we could all understand I
remember the day, when I earned my first pay As I played in the samll
pick-up band Then I spent my youth, and to tell you the truth I was sad to
leave it all behind me For I'd learned about life and I'd found me a wife In
the town I loved so well But when I returned, how my eyes were burned To
see how a town could be brought to its knees By the armoured cars and the
bombed out bars And the gas that hangs on to every breeze Now the Army's
installed by the old Gas-yard wall And the damned barbed wire gets higher
and higher With their tanks and guns, oh my God what have they done To
the town I love so well Now the music's gone, but they still carry-on Though
their spirit's gone, but never broken They will not forget for their hearts are
all set On tomorrow, and peace once again For what's done is done, and
what's won is won And what's lost is lost and gone forever I can only pray
for a bright brand new day In the town I love so well
Spain, 1871-1914
• Both Spain and Italy had
constitutional monarchies
• Conservative social groups
controlled both nations and
both were still largely
agricultural and characterized
by sectionalism
• Spanish-American War, 1898
• Teddy and The Rough Riders
• Generation of 1898
• Violence erupted in 1909 when
the working classes demanded
reforms in Spain
U.S.S. Maine
Unification of Italy, 1871
Count of Cavour
Victor
Emmanuel
Garibaldi
Rise of Nationalism: Italian Unification
1. Rise of Romanticism and Nationalism
2. Mazzini and Garibaldi unify young republicans
against Austria
3. Cavour (Prime Minister) and Victor Emmanuel King
a. Piedmont or Sardinia conflict with Austrians
b. Values economic unity v. romantic
c. Creates alliance w/ France after assistance in
Crimean War
d. Austria is driven from Italy, Northern Provinces
join Piedmont.
e. Cavour v. Romantics (Garibaldi) move to unite
Italy.
f. Gradual Process from 1859-1870
g. In reality Italy was conquered
Italy, 1871-1914
• Italy was divided by an agricultural South and industrial
North
• Pope Pius IX refused to recognize Italian sovereignty over
Rome; Catholics were forbidden to vote in national elections
• Between 1896 and 1914, northern Italy experienced rapid
industrialization
• Rise of a labor movement and the Italian Socialist party,
1892
• Universal male suffrage, 1912
• Extensive corruption and weak government
• Giovanni Giolitti (1903-1914)
• Problem of imperialistic pretensions (Ethiopia, 1896 &
Libya, 1912)
Unification of Germany, 1871
The New Germany, 1871-1914
• German constitution provided for a
federal system, bicameral legislature
• Individual states kept their own kings
• Bundesrat and Reichstag; universal male
suffrage
• Ministers of the government were only
responsible to the emperor
• Political democracy failed to develop in
Germany before World War I
• Otto von Bismarck and the army
prevented democracy
The New Germany, 1871-1914
• The German (Prussian) army viewed itself
as the defender of the monarchy
• Strong Prussian military tradition
• Most laws did not required parliamentary
majority (except military appropriations
bills)
• Until 1878, Bismarck worked with the
National Liberals
• Kulturkampf – attack on the Catholicism
in Germany
• Center Party, 1870
The New Germany, 1871-1914
• In 1878, Bismarck allied himself with the
Center Party and the Conservatives to
persecute the socialists
• Social Democratic Party, 1877
• Antisocialist laws – outlawed the party,
meetings and publications
• Social welfare legislation provided
benefits, workmen’s compensation, and
social security
• Failed to stop the growth of socialism
• Fired by the new emperor, William II in
1890
The New Germany, 1871-1914
• Kaiser William II (1888-1918)
• By 1914, Germany was the
strongest military and industrial
power on the continent
• By 1912, the Social Democrat Party
was the single largest party in the
Reichstag; revisionism
• Conservatives and William II tried
to block demands for more
democracy by focusing on an
aggressive foreign policy
• Pan-German League and the growth
of anti-Semitism
Austria, 1850-1871
• Emancipation of serfs, 1848
• All revolutionary constitutions were
abolished and autocracy was reimposed
• Alexander von Bach
• After Austria’s loss to France and
Sardinia in 1859. Emperor Francis
Joseph created the Reichsrat
• After Austria’s loss to Prussia in
1866, the dual monarch of AustriaHungary was created
• Ausgleich, Compromise of 1867
Austria-Hungary, 1871-1914
• After a creation of a dual monarchy in 1867, Germans still
dominated the government
• Universal male suffrage, 1907
• Prime ministers frequently ignored the parliament and ruled by
emergency decree
• Increased German nationalism
• Growth of Social Democrats and Christian Socialist parties
• Karl Lueger and anti-Semitism in Vienna
• Hungary also issues with different nationalities and worked for
complete separation from Austria
Russia, 1850-1881
• After the defeat in the Crimean War, Czar
Alexander II (1855-1881) turned his
efforts to reforming Russia
• On March 3, 1861, Alexander II
emancipated Russia’s serfs
• Benefits of emancipation were limited –
mir (village commune)
• In 1864, Alexander II created a system of
zemstvos – local self-governments
• Legal reforms of 1864
• Opposition arose against Alexander II;
the People’s Will (anarchist group)
assassinated Alexander II in 1881
• Czar Alexander III had no interest in
reforms
Russia, 1881-1914
• Czar Alexander III created an
oppressive government after his
father’s assassination in 1881
• Czar Nicholas II (1894-1917)
• Industrialization led by the
government
• Sergei Witte pushed the
government toward massive
railroad construction and
protective tariffs
• By 1900, Russia was the fourth
largest producer of steel
• Marxist Social Democratic Party
Revolution of 1905
• Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5
• Major food shortages in Russian
cities
• January 9, 1905 – workers went to the
Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to
present a petition of grievances
• “Bloody Sunday”
• Workers went on a general strike,
zemstvos demanded a parliamentary
government, peasants revolted
• October Manifesto, 1905
• Creation of the Duma
• Assassination of Peter Stolypin, 1911
the “new
imperialism”
1875-1914
imperialism and the balance of power
extent of colonialism (1939)
Great
Britain
France
Belgium
Netherlands
Germany
(1914)
Area in
Square Miles
94,000
212,600
11,800
13,200
210,000
Population
45,500,100
42,000,000
8,300,000
8.500,000
67,500,000
Area of
Colonies
13,100,000
4,300,000
940,000
790,000
1,100,000
Population
of all
Colonies
470,000,000
65,000,000
13,000,000
66,000,000
13,000,000
percentage of territories belonging to the european/us
colonial powers (1900)
Region
Percentage Controlled
Africa
90.4%
Polynesia
98.9%
Asia
56.5%
Australia
100.0%
Americas
27.2%
The “new
imperialism”
characteristics of the “new imperialism”
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Europeans continued to dominate less technologically
orientated, non-Europeans
Europeans continued to emigrate into colonized areas
Europeans were no longer just after gold and silver, but
industrial raw materials and new markets
Much more rapid and deeper penetrations into nonEuropean Areas than previous imperialism
Most of the “new imperialism” was directed toward the
domination of Africa and Asia, instead of just trading posts
and some missionary activity
But why???
1. nationalistic competition
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After 1871 and the unifications of Germany and Italy,
nationalism was tied to conservatism (not liberalism) – it
was loud and chauvinistic
“a true nationalist places his country above everything else”
“exclusive pursuit of national policies” and “ the steady
increase in national power—for a nation declines when it
loses military might.”
European nations competed for foreign ports and coaling
stations for their navies
Colonies were a source of international prestige; failure to
enter the race for colonies was a sign of weakness
Social Darwinism
• Social Darwinists
believed in the struggle
between nations, the fit
are victorious and
survive
• Superior races must
dominate inferior races
to show how strong they
are
• Herbert Spencer Social Statics (1896)
2 Social Darwinism
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Racism and anti-Semitism was
revived and strengthened by
new biological arguments
Houston Stewart Chamberlain
and the concept of the Volk –
German racial superiority
The Foundations of the
Nineteenth Century (1899)
argued that the Germans were
the only pure successors to the
Aryan race, the original creators
of Western culture
3 Social Darwinism
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“The path of progress is strewn with the wrecks of nations;
traces are everywhere to be seen of the [slaughtered
remains] of inferior races … Yet these dead people are, in
very truth, the stepping stones on which mankind has arisen
to the higher intellectual and deeper emotional life of today.”
Karl Pearson
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“To the development of the White Man, the Black Man and
the Yellow must ever remain inferior, and as the former
raised itself higher and yet higher, so did these latter seem to
shrink out of humanity and appear nearer and nearer to the
brutes.”
Anonymous Englishman
3. religious/humanitarian
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Europeans had the moral
responsibility to “civilize”
ignorant peoples
Introduction of modern
industry, cities, western
culture, and new medicines to
“primitive” cultures
Spread of Christian
missionaries (both Catholic
and Protestant) to Africa and
Asia
Missionaries often set up
schools and hospitals
3. religious/humanitarian
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Rudyard Kipling
“Take up the White Man’s burden—
Send forth the best ye breed—
Go bind your sons to exile—
To serve your captives’ need;
To wait in heavy harness
On fluttered folk and wild—
Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half-devil and half-child.
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European officials attempted to
“westernize” colonial peoples
Another form of racism
4. economic
• There was a great demand for natural resources and
products not found in Western nations; i.e. rubber,
oil, and tin
• European investors advocated direct control of areas
with raw materials and markets instead of just
trading activities
• European finances dominated a large part of the
world – economic imperialism
• Businessmen invested where it was most profitable,
not necessarily where their own countries had
colonies; most colonies were viewed as wastelands
marxist response
• Marxists argued that imperialism was economically
motivated and associated it with the demise of
capitalism
• Vladimir Lenin in Imperialism, the Highest Stage
of World Capitalism, argued that capitalism
concentrates wealth into ever fewer hands and
eventually forced the wealthy to invest abroad
instead of at home, establish colonies, and exploit
small, weak nations
• The only cure for imperialism, was the destruction
of capitalism
european emigration
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During the 1800s, European leaders
urged their citizens to move to
colonies
During the 1840s, thousands of
French citizens moved to Algeria;
started farms and seized land from
local farmers
British emigrants rushed to Australia
and New Zealand in the 1850s,
searching for gold
“the sun never sets on the British
Empire”
Some, like Cecil Rhodes, became
powerful and wealthy emigrants;
made a fortune in gold and diamonds
in South Africa and founded a new
colony: Rhodesia
forms of imperialism
• Colony – a territory that an imperial power rules
directly through colonial officials
• Protectorate – a territory has its own government
but its policies are guided by a foreign power
(sometimes called a “puppet government”)
• Sphere of influence – a region of a country in
which an imperial power has exclusive investment
or trading rights (esp. prevalent in China)
forms of imperialism
• Direct Rule– an imperial power closely regulated
the political affairs of the colony and attempted to
assimilate colonial peoples into their culture (the
French)
• Some French colonial subjects were eligible to serve
in the French National Assembly in Paris
• Indirect Rule – an imperial power focused strictly
on administrative duties and were not likely to
convert colonial peoples to their culture (the British)
• Relied on existing political elites and institutions;
kept the old elite in power and sowed the seeds for
class and tribal tensions
The Balkans
• In the course of the nineteenth
century, the Balkan provinces
of the Ottoman empire
gradually gained their freedom
• Austria and Russia complicated
the process
• Serbia, 1878
• Romania, 1878
• Nationalism was a powerful
force in the Balkans – “powder
keg”
• Balkan Wars, 1912-1913
Legacy of the 19th Century
• A. A World of dramatic change and competition
(Oral Review)
• 1. The impact of the 19th century is seen
throughout Europe
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A. Industrialization
B. Revolution (Liberalism v. Conservatism)
C. Nationalism (Unification of Italy and Germany)
D. Imperialism (Race for Africa
E. Secret Diplomacy and Balance of Power.
Prelude to War: The Powder
Keg
• A period defined by economic and colonial
competition.
• Industrialization and Technology lead to an Arms
Race
• New Empires require military growth
• England Largest Navy in the World
• Germany 5,000,000 man army, largest in history
• German – English competition to be hegemonic
power
• Russia and Austria fight for control over Balkans
• Warm water port
• Era of Secret Alliances
Secret Alliances: An Explosive
Combination
The Powder Keg Explodes
• Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand, Heir
to Austrian throne is assassinated by
Serbian nationalist. (June 28, 1914)
• The World Mobilizes for War
• July Ultimatum
• Austria called upon the Serbian
Government to:
• condemned and admitted the existence of
anti-Austro-Hungarian propaganda.
• expressed regrets for and admitted that
Serbia officers and functionaries
participated in the propaganda.
• warned that the Serbian Government will
crack down against such activities.
• 10 Points demanded
• Serbia accepts all but 1, The Crisis
Escalates
Archduke Franz
Ferdinand
Gavrilo
Princip
Crisis Continued: July 31-Aug 4
• Serbia mobilizes for war on July 25
• Russia openly pledges support
• Serbian Soldiers cross into the Austro-Hungarian
half of the river near Temes-Kubin
• Shots are fired with no real consequence.
• Kaiser Franz-Joseph (Austria) mobilizes for war
• Kaiser Wilhelm (Germany) attempts a peaceful
resolution but threatens the Russians to back
down.
• England prepares its fleet for mobilization
• France comes to the aid of Russia
• Germany attacks neutral Belgium
• The world goes to war!
They thought it would be over by
Christmas!
The Great
War
The War to
end all
Wars