Transcript PSIR205 Slides 6 File

Forces Challenging the
Conservative European Order
Liberalism
Nationalism
Early Liberal Principles
C19th Liberalism
Legal
Equality
Religious
Toleration
Freedom
of Press
Free Market Constitutional
Economies Government*
* Note that while C19th Liberals did
support constitutional government, with
powers of monarchs being limited &
governments being responsible to elected
representatives of parliament, they DID
NOT support mass democracy.
Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Nationalism can be regarded as the most
significant political force of C19th Europe.
Impact continued in Europe & rest of the world
in the following century, & still today.
Definitions of nationalism typically suggest
nationalism is based on demand that groups
of people (known as “nations”) connected
by their common language, &/or culture,
&/or history, &/or geography, &/or religion
should be ruled by their own government
within their own state. This was not an idea
that had significant affect in Europe before
C19th.
Rise of Nationalism in Europe (2)
Origins of nations & nationalism are also v.
controversial, but the Romantic Movement is
often recognized as having played an impt. role
in their development in Europe. Historians &
writers in C19th Europe who collected
information & stories about nations’ “pasts”,
their common folklore, literature & language
& customs, & transmitted their work to larger
audiences through the mechanized printing
press, helped to give people a sense of
community beyond the immediate locality in
which they lived. Their ideas & findings
transmitted further by schoolteachers.
The Romantic Movemet
The Romantic Movement, or Romanticism,
gained strength in the early C19th and was
partly a reaction to the values of the
Enlightenment and impact of industrialization.
Its influence was felt in art, literature, folklore,
history and cultural studies, and intellectually it
emphasized the importance of understanding
the role played by emotions, feelings &
imagination (as opposed to rationality).
th
C19
Major Centers of
Nationalism in Europe
IRISH
POLISH
GERMAN
EAST
EUROPEAN
ITALIAN
BALKAN
Major Centers of C19th
European Nationalism (2)
Irish nationalism: Known as “The Irish Problem”,
Ireland taken over by Britain in 1800, but Irish
nationalists began to demand independence (at
least greater self-government)
Italian Nationalism: Divided among many states,
with Austria esp. powerful in Italian affairs, Italian
nationalists wanted national unification of the
Italian people
German Nationalism: Divided among many states,
German nationalists wanted a united German
nation-state
Major Centers of C19th
European Nationalism (3)
Polish Nationalism: Poland had lost its
independence, its territory distributed among Great
Powers. Polish nationalists wanted an independent
nation-state.
Eastern European Nationalism: Largely within
Austrian Empire where many different ethnic
groups co-habited, different communities, esp.
Hungarians (Magyars), Czechs, Slovenes, began
to politicize their demands for their own ethnic
groups, & call for national independence.
Balkan Nationalism: Largely in Ottoman territories,
(also Russian,Austrian), Serbs,Greeks,Romanians,
Bulgarians & others began demand independence.
Metternich
& the Conservative Order
Perhaps most significant center
of conservatism during postVienna years was Austria.
Empire’s Chancellor Prince
Metternich (1773 - 1859)
aware of dangers of nationalism
& liberalism to multi-national
empire like Austria, & that even
beyond borders of Empire, in
the German Bund the rise of
these forces could threaten
stability within Austria.
The German Bund
At the Vienna Congress a
very loose confederation
was formed among the
German States known as
the Bund. It had 39
members, most powerful of
which were Austria &
Prussia. Metternich was
determined to dominate the
Bund esp. so as to prevent
the rise of demands for
liberal constitutionalism &
German nationalist forces
that could threaten the
integrity of Austria within
which millions of ethnic
Germans also lived.
The Carlsbad Decrees
In early C19th there
were active German
student clubs known as
‘Burschenschaften’
that were pushing the
demand for German
national unification. To
prevent their demands
from spreading,
Metternich persuaded
the main German
states to accept the
Carlsbad Decrees of
July 1819.
Each university to have a
representative of state’s ruler
to make sure university (incl.
students & professors) obeyed
laws & acted “morally”
Professors promoting ideas
that challenged existing
regimes to be dismissed
Burchenschaften banned &
all individuals involved in secret
or unauthorized university
associations prohibited from
holding public office
Heavy censorship of the press
with severe penalties for those
disobeying censorship laws
Conservatism in France
Similar conservative trends to those imposed by Metternich
were seen during this period in other parts of Europe too.
E.g., in France, there was also a wave of conservatism. Louis
XVI, originally accepted circumstances had changed & that his
powers would be constitutionally limited by a ‘Charter’. The
French Charter had guaranteed legal equality & religious
toleration, & establishment of a partially elected parliament.
(But, parliament’s upper house was actually appointed by the
King, & though the lower house was elected, only those with
substantial property qualified to vote & to stand as candidates).
By 1820, however, following assassination of second-in-line to
throne, king persuaded to become more conservative & impose
press censorship, further restrict right to vote, arrested
many, (incl. liberals), suspected of threatening his regime, & put
secondary education under control of Catholic Church.
Early Challenges to the
Vienna Settlement
1820 Revolution in Spain & Uprisings in many Italian
states against “legitimate” monarchies restored
after Vienna. Put down by Great Power intervention.
In 1825, in ‘Decembrist Revolt’, liberals tried to gain
greater power in Russia. When Tsar Alexander I died
Nov 1825 liberal army officers gave backing to his
replacement by his less conservative brother
Constantine, but were ultimately unsuccessful in
getting him installed on the throne, & instead Tsar
Nicholas, another brother of Alexander seen as more
conservative became the new Tsar & tried to maintain
tight control through censorship & secret police.
Tsar Nicholas I
Early Challenges to the
Vienna Settlement (2)
Somewhat in contradiction, however, the Great
Powers were to intervene in favour of Revolution in
Greece that began in 1821 & sought independence
from the Ottoman Empire. In this case, in fact,
European liberals strongly supported their states’
intervening & leading figures such as Lord Byron
actually went to fight on the side of the insurgents.
They created the image of this struggle for national
liberation as the re-birth of ancient Greek civilization &
democracy as opposed to the oppressive, despotic
Turk. By 1830 Greece had been recognized as an
independent kingdom by the Ottomans. (Serbia was
also to gain independence in the Ottoman Balkans the
same year).
Modern
Greece
Following the
general ratification
of its indepence in
1832, Kingdom of
Greece expanded
over the next
century to more or
less its present
shape in different
stages.
Revolutions of 1830
Partially successful challenges to conservative
order occurred in 1830. 1st major successful
challenge in France where Bourbon monarchy
was overthrown. Charles X, Louis XVIII’
brother, became king after Louis’ death (1824).
Charles was much more extreme conservative
(supported by “ultraroyalists”) who wanted to
turn clock back fully to absolutist years. He
introduced series of conservative / reactionary
policies incl. payments to aristocrats who lost
land in French Revolution. Unhappy that there
were too many liberals in Chamber of Deputies,
Charles X
he called new election in early 1830... But
liberals gained even more seats! Charles now
led royal coup d'état issuing ‘Four
Ordinances’ on July 25th 1830.
Four Ordinances & ‘July Revolution’
These ordinances basically
ignored constitutional monarchy
established at Vienna. Liberal
newspapers called on people to
2) Chamber of Deputies resist. Labourers in Paris,
(already hurt by harsh economic
Dissolved
conditions since 1827), took to
the streets & were attacked by
3) New Elections Called Kings forces in the ‘July Days’.
Many died, but ultimately king
was forced to abdicate on Aug 2nd
4) Franchise restricted 1830. The Chamber of Deputies
to only the very
chose Duke of Orleans,
wealthiest
thereafter known as Louis
Philippe, (known to have more
liberal leanings), as new king.
1) Restrictions on
Freedom of the Press
The Independence of Belgium
Developments in France in 1830 led to
political changes in other areas. E.g., at
Vienna new state known as United
Kingdom of the Netherlands formed incl.
territory known later as Belgium. Uprisings
began late Aug 1830 & Dutch forces failed
to defeat Belgians who declared their
independence & established a liberal
constitution. This territorial change
conflicted with Vienna decisions, but
Russia busy with own uprising of Poles,
Prussia trying to suppress liberal uprisings
in smaller neighbouring German states &
Austria likewise in Italian states. Great
Powers therefore took no action. Belgian
independence officially recognized with
Treaty of London in 1839.
British Counterpart to Revolution
Revolutionary uprisings shook much of Europe from
late C18th onwards, but Britain was an exception.
While no revolution in Britain during this period, there
was, however, change. Change was more gradual &
incremental & usually result of compromise between
more conservative & liberal elements of society.
E.g., ‘Great Reform Bill of 1832’ increased size of
British electorate by providing wealthier business &
commercial class with right to vote. This change was
not a result of revolution, but of recognition of changes
in domestic balance of power, compromise & a strong
parliamentary tradition open to adapting in order to
meet the rising needs / demands for change.
Rulers of France: 1789-1871
Louis XI (r. 1774-1792)
First Republic (1793-1804)
Napoleon Bonaparte (1804-1815)
Louis XVIII (1815-1824)
Charles X (1824-1830)
Louis Philippe (1830-1848)
Second Republic (1848-1856)
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1856-1870)
Third Republic (1871-1940)