Transcript Chapter 21 - Cloudfront.net

Chapter 21
Reaction, Revolution, and
Romanticism,
1815 - 1850
The Conservative Order (1815 – 1830)
The Peace Settlement
Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia
• Defeated Napoleon
• Congress of Vienna (1814 – 1815)
 Created policies to maintain European balance of power
• Lead by Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austrian foreign
minister)
 Believed European monarchs shared common interest of stability
• The principal of legitimacy
 Considered it necessary to restore legitimate monarchs to
preserve traditional institutions
 Restore Bourbon monarchy to the throne in Louis XVIII
• A new balance of power
 Strengthen countries to prevent one country from dominating
 Napoleon’s escape from Elba prompted the Congress of Vienna to
push France’s borders back to those of 1790 as punishment for
enthusiastically accepting him back
Possible Test Question
At the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian
representative Prince Metternich pursued the
policy of legitimacy, meaning
He wished to legitimate the French defeat.
He sought legitimate control over central Europe to
benefit Austria.
He endeavored to restore legitimate monarchs on their
thrones and to preserve traditional institutions and
values.
He sought legitimate proof of England’s economic and
industrial support of Austria.
He demanded that the state churches, Catholic or
Protestant, become the primary rulers throughout all of
Europe.
Possible Test Question
The Congress of Vienna
Gave Prussia complete control over Polish
lands.
Created policies that would maintain the
European balance of power.
Failed to achieve long-lasting peace among
European nations.
Treated France leniently following Napoleon’s
One Hundred Days.
Sanctioned the political power of the
bourgeoisie.
Conservative Ideology
Conservatism became the dominant political thought
after the fall of Napoleon
From Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution of
France
• Emphasized the dangers of radical political change
Conservative political thought
• Obedience to political authority
• Organized religion was crucial to social order
• Hated revolutionary upheavals
 Advocated slow, gradual changes
• Unwilling to accept liberal demands or representative
government
• Wanted to preserve achievements of previous generations
while sacrificing individual rights for the well being of the
community
Possible Test Question
Conservatism, the dominant political philosophy
following the fall of Napoleon
Was rejected by the Congress of Vienna as
inappropriate in the new liberal age.
Expressed that individual rights remained the best guide
for human order.
Was exemplified by Edmund Burke’s Reflections on
the Revolution in France, emphasizing the dangers of
radical and “rational” political change.
Was too radical for Joseph de Maistre, the French
spokesman for a cautious, evolutionary conservatism.
Advocated the creation of oligarchic republics.
New Map of Europe
Congress of Vienna sought to weaken France and
maintain a balance power
Created a new enlarged Netherlands
Enlarged Sardina
Prussia was given territory on the Rhine
Germanic Confederation (Germanic States)
Kingdom of Poland
Austria got territory in northern Italy
Congress of Vienna managed to prevent an all out
European conflict for almost a century
Map 21.1: Europe after the
Congress of Vienna
Conservative Domination: The Concert of Europe
The Concert of Europe
Fear of Revolution & war led to development
of the Concert of Europe
Met several times: congresses
Quintuple Alliance
• Withdraw armies from France, add France to the
Concert of Europe
Principle of intervention
• Outbreak of revolution in Spain and Italy
• Great powers reserved the right to send armies into
countries where there were revolutions to restore
legitimate monarchs to their throne
• Britain objected to the principle of intervention
leading to a breakdown in the Concert of Europe
• Austrian troops crushed Italian rebellion
• French troops crushed Spanish rebellion
• Britain’s refusal kept Continental Europe from
interfering in revolutions in Latin America
Possible Test Question
The most important factor in preventing the
European overthrow of the newly
independent nations of Latin America was
European economic collapse.
The Monroe Doctrine guiding American
foreign policy.
The sheer size of South America.
Growing support for pacifism in Europe.
British naval power.
The Revolt of Latin America
Bourbon monarchy of Spain toppled
Latin American countries begin declaring independence
• Simón Bolivar (1783-1830)
 Freed Columbia (1819) & Venezuela (1821)
• José de San Martín (1778-1850)
 Freed Chile (1817)
 San Martin & Bolivar joined to crush the last Spanish
authority in Lima, Peru (1821)
 After 1825, almost all of Latin America was free of
colonial domination
 Continental Europe looked to intervene, U.S. passed the
Monroe Doctrine pledging to support Latin American
countries
 British Navy was more of a deterrent than U.S. words
Britain began to dominate Latin American economy
• British merchants & investors moved in
Map 21.2: Latin America in the First
Half of the Nineteenth Century
The Greek Revolt, 1821-1832
Intervention could support revolution as well
Greek revolt in, 1820
• European sympathy for their cause grew
Britain, France, Russia at war
• French & British navy destroyed Ottoman Armada
• Russia declared war on Ottoman Empire
Treaty of Adrianople, 1829
• Ended the Russian-Turkish War
• Greece was declared an independent kingdom
Possible Test Question
The Greek revolt was successful largely due
to
A well-trained guerrilla army.
The Turks’ lack of fortitude.
European intervention.
Superior Greek military tactics.
Adopting a policy of peaceful coexistence.
Conservative Domination: The European States
Great Britain: Rule of the Tories
Landowning classes dominate Parliament
Tory and Whig factions; Tories dominate
Corn Law of 1815 – placed a high tariff on
foreign grain – put a financial strain on working
classes
• Peterloo Massacre (1819) – military fired on English
protesting high bread prices
Restoration in France
Louis XVIII (r. 1814 – 1824)
• Kept some of the Revolutionary changes
 Accepted some of the Napoleonic Code
 Property Rights
 Bicameral Legislature Established
Ultraroyalists – hoped to return to a
monarchical system & criticized the king’s
willingness to compromise
Intervention in the Italian States and Spain
Conservative reaction against the forces of nationalism and
liberalism
• Austrian forces intervene in Italy
• French forces intervene in Spain
Repression in Central Europe
Metternich and the forces of reaction
Liberal and national movements in Germany
• Initially weak & remained controlled by landowning class
Burschenshaften – students societies, dedicated to a free and united
Germany (symbol of growing liberalism and nationalism)
Karlsbad Decrees (1819)
• Metternich had this decree drawn up by the Germanic
Confederation in response to the Burschenschaften
 The Karlsbad Decrees (1819)
 Disbanded the Burschenschaften
 Censored the press
 Supervised universities
 Restrictions on university activities
Possible Test Question
The Karlsbad Decrees of 1819 did all of the
following except
Disband the Burschenshaften.
Impose censorship on the German press.
Placed most German universities under close
government supervision.
Dissolved several smaller German states.
Placed restrictions upon university activities.
Russia
Start of 19th century, Russia was rural, agricultural, and autocratic
Alexander I (1801-1825)
• Raised on ideas of the Enlightenment & seemed sympathetic to
reform
• Leader of Russia during Napoleonic Wars
• Reformed the Russian education system
• After the defeat of Napoleon, his rule turned stricter leading to
opposition
• Used censorship to govern the people
Nicholas I (1825-1855)
• Military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against
Nicholas I taking the throne (Decembrist Revolt)
• Revolt was crushed by loyal troops
• Russia became a police state (secret police)
 Nicholas feared revolutions in Russia & in Europe
Possible Test Question
Tsar Alexander I of Russia did all of the following
except
Become more reactionary after the defeat of Napoleon.
Grant a constitution, freeing the serfs.
Reform the Russian education system.
Revert to a program of arbitrary censorship as a tool of
governing.
Was the leader of Russia during the Napoleonic Wars.
Ideologies of Change
Liberalism
• Economic liberalism (classical economics)
 Laissez-faire – free from constraints
 Supply & Demand would dictate the market
 Thomas Malthus Essay on the Principles of Population
 Presented a case against government intervention
 Misery & poverty were simply the inevitable result of
the law of nature; no government or individual should
interfere with its operation
 David Ricardo Principles of Political Economy
 Iron Law of Wages
 Wages are cyclical, raising them arbitrarily is futile
 Increase in population means more workers, lower
wages, resulting in starvation & misery, reducing the
population, which increases wages, causing a higher
birth rate and the cycle continues
Possible Test Question
The argument that population must be held
in check for any progress to take place was
popularized by
Adam Smith.
David Ricardo.
Joeseph de Maistre.
Edmund Burke.
Thomas Malthus.
Political liberalism
 Ideology of political liberalism
 Believed in individual freedom
 Protection of civil liberties
 Freedom before the law, assembly, speech, press
 Modeled after the Declaration of Independence & the
Rights of Man & Citizen
 The rights of a representative assembly (legislature) to
make laws
 Political liberalism was embraced by the industrial
middle class
 They wanted voting rights so they could share power
with the landowning class but they didn’t advocate
extending those rights to the lower class
• John Stuart Mill, On Liberty
 Supported the absolute freedom of opinion and
sentiment on all subjects
 Supported Women’s rights
 On the Subjection of Women
 The legal subordination of one sex to the
other was wrong
 Important work for later suffrage movements
Possible Test Question
The foremost group embracing liberalism
was made up by
Factory workers.
The industrial middle class.
Radical aristocrats.
Army officers.
The landed gentry.
Nationalism
• Part of a community with common institutions, traditions,
language, and customs
• The community is called a “nation”
 Formation of political loyalty
• Nationalist ideology
 Arose from the French Revolution and spread across Europe
 National unity in Germany or Italy threatened to upset the
balance of power established with the Congress of Vienna
 An independent Hungarian state would breakup the Austrian
Empire
 Conservatives tried to repress nationalism (Concert of Europe)
• Allied with liberalism
 Liberals believed their goals could only be realized by people
who ruled themselves
 Nationalists believed that stronger states comprised of their own
people would eventually link communities and ultimately
humanity
Map 21.3: The Distribution of Language in
Nineteenth-Century Europe
Early Socialism
Utopian Socialists
Against private property & competitive spirit of
capitalism
Charles Fourier (1772 – 1838)
• Proposed the creation of small model cooperative
communities called “phalansteries”
 People would live & work together for mutual benefit
Robert Owen (1771-1858)
• British cotton manufacturer who believed human
goodness would reveal itself if people worked
together
 Developed a healthy community in Scotland but failed in
U.S.
Early Socialism
Louis Blanc (1813 – 1882)
• Thought social problems could be solved by government assistance
 Denounced competition as an economic evil
 Proposed establishing workshops that would manufacture goods for
public sale
 The state would finance the workshops but the workers would own and
operate them
 These national workshops would become little more than unemployment
compensation units through public works projects
Female Supporters
• Utopian socialism attracted many women who hoped to help their
gender by reordering society
Flora Tristan (1803 – 1844)
• Traveled Europe demanding equality for the sexes
• She was largely ignored
Socialism remained a fringe movement in the early 19th century
but it laid the groundwork for later attacks on capitalism
Possible Test Question
The French socialist, Flora Tristan
Demanded absolute equality of the sexes.
Established a cooperative socialist community
at New Harmony, Indiana.
Felt that the greatest evil in society was the
profit motive in business and economics.
Started the international “Women’s Social and
Political Union.”
Condemned Karl Marx as being too
revolutionary.
Revolution and Reform,
1830-1850
Another French Revolution
Charles X (1824-1830)
• Liberals were winning elections which angered the king
• Issued the July Ordinances
 Rigid censorship
 Dissolved the legislative assembly
 Reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections
• Immediate revolt by liberals
Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)
• Group of moderate liberals appealed to LouisPhilippe, the Duke of Orleans to become the
constitutional king of France
• Charles X fled to Great Britain & a new monarchy
was born
• The bourgeois monarch – support for his rule came
from the upper middle class
• Constitutional changes favor the upper bourgeoisie
 Lower bourgeoisie & working class are disappointed that
they are excluded from political power
Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium,
Poland, and Italy (Nationalism)
Primary driving force for these three 1830 revolution
was nationalism.
Austrian Netherlands (Catholic Belgium) given to
(Protestant) Dutch Republic by the Congress of Vienna
Nationalistic revolt by the Belgians (Protestants)
established a constitutional monarchy
Revolt attempts in Poland and Italy
• Austrians crushed Italian revolution
• Russians crushed Polish revolution
The Revolution of 1830
Possible Test Question
The most successful nationalistic European
revolution in 1830 was in
Poland.
Germany.
Italy.
The United Provinces.
Belgium.
Reform in Great Britain
The Reform Act of 1832
New political power for industrial urban communities (Whigs take
power over Tories)
July Revolution in France set the stage for change
Benefited the upper middle class (wealthy industrial middle class)
• Reform Act of 1832 – Industrial communities gained a voice in voting
• Number of voters increased from 478,000 – 814,000
• Artisans, industrial workers & lower middle classes still had no vote
New Reform Legislation
Poor Law of 1834 – based on the theory that giving aid to the poor
& unemployed would encourage laziness
• The poor were crowded into workhouses where the living & working
conditions were intentionally miserable so people would be
encouraged to find employment
Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)
• Economic liberals advocated free trade & lower bread prices for
workers
Possible Test Question
The Reform Bill of 1832 in Britain
primarily benefited the
Landed aristocracy.
Peasants.
Working class.
Clergy.
Upper middle-class.
The Revolutions of 1848
Yet Another French Revolution
1846 – agricultural & industrial depression
1847 – 33% unemployment rate in Paris
Government was corrupt & failed to initiate reform
• No suffrage for the middle class
Louis-Philippe abdicates, February 24, 1848 (fled to
Britain)
Provisional government established
• Elections to be by universal manhood suffrage
• National workshops – jobs for unemployed
• Growing split between moderate and liberal republicans
 Moderate Government – most of France
 Radical liberals – Parisian working class
Provisional government established workshops under
the influence of Louis Blanc
• Unemployed workers got jobs raking leafs, ditch digging &
other manual labor jobs
• Unemployed workers in the national workshops rose from
10,000 to 120,000, emptying the treasury & prompting
moderates to halt the programs
• Became little more than unemployment compensation units
through public works projects
• Workers refused to except the decision leading to four days of
fighting in this working class revolt (government prevailed)
Second Republic established
• New Constitution ratified
• Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected in December,
1848 (nephew of Napoleon)
Map 21.4: The Revolutions of
1848 – 1849
Revolution in Central Europe
French revolts led to promises of reform
Frederick William IV (1840-1861)
• Germanic state rulers made concessions to the growing
revolutionary sentiments
 Freedom of press, abolishing censorship, new constitutions, &
working towards a united Germany
• Frankfurt Assembly
 All German parliament elected by universal male suffrage
 Purpose was to prepare a constitution for a united Germany
 Frederick William IV refused the offer of “emperor of the
Germans”
 Frankfurt Assembly disbanded without accomplishing their goal
of a united Germany
Possible Test Question
In 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly
Unanimously adopted a Grossdeutsch solution for the
Germanies.
Succeeded in making Prussia’s Frederick William IV
president of a united Germany.
Failed in its attempt to create a united Germany.
Gained the support of Austria.
Declared its solidarity with revolutionary France.
Austrian Empire
Louis Kossuth, Hungary
 Advocated the formation of a legislature
• Metternich flees the country after demonstrations
begin & he is dismissed from office
• In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control calling
for a constituent assembly
• Hungary’s wishes granted
 Own Legislature
 National army
 Control over its foreign policy & budget
Austria Cont’d
• Emperor Ferdinand I & Austrian officials made
concessions to revolutionaries but waited for an
opportunity to reassert conservative control
• Tried to capitalize on division between radical &
moderate revolutionaries
• Military forces suppressed Czech rebels
• Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of his nephew
• Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)
• Nicholas I of Russia sent in troops to defeat
Kossuth’s forces and suppress the revolution
 Austrian emperor & propertied classes remained in power
Revolts in the Italian States
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
Risorgimento - resurgence
Founded organization called Young Italy, 1831
Goal: a united Italy
Cristina Belgioioso (1808-1871)
Wealthy aristocrat who worked for a united Italy
Italian citizens rose up in 1848
Charles Albert (r. 1831 – 1849)
King of Italian state of Piedmont took up to the call for
a war of liberation from Austria
The revolution (resurgence) was defeated by combined
forces from the Pope, France and Austria.
Possible Test Question
Giuseppe Mazzini’s nationalist organization,
Young Italy,
Liberated Italy’s northern provinces from Austrian
control.
Failed to achieve his goal of “resurgence” by 1849.
Helped inspire successful liberal constitutions
throughout Italy.
Used the liberals in governments to extend suffrage to
Italy’s working classes.
Allied itself with the papacy to drive France out of
Italy.
The Failures of 1848
Division within the revolutionaries
Radicals and liberals
Liberties from propertied classes failed to extend male
suffrage to the working classes
Liberals were concerned about their property & security
& the fear of a social revolution by the working class
Divisions among nationalities
Hungarians demanded autonomy from Austrians but
refused to offer the same autonomy to their minorities
The Maturing of the United
States
The American Constitution contained forces of liberalism
and nationalism
Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), Federalist
Favored a financial program that would establish a strong central
government
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), Republican
Feared centralization & consequences for popular liberties
Effects of War of 1812
Brought an end to the Federalists who had opposed the war
John Marshall (1755-1835)
Strengthened the Supreme Court (checks Congress)
Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) and democracy
Male suffrage – dropped property qualification
The Emergence of an Ordered Society
Development of a regular system of police
Purpose of police
• Preserve property & lives, maintain domestic order, investigate crime,
& arrest offenders & to create a disciplined law-abiding society
French Police – Known as Serfients
First appearance of new kind of police in Paris
British Bobbies
“Bobbies” introduced in 1829 – 1830
Goal was to prevent crime
Crime and Social Reform
New poor laws
Moral reformers
Organized religion
Prison Reform
The United States takes the lead (Auburn Prison in New York, Walnut
Street Prison in Philadelphia)
Prison reform in France and Britain
Possible Test Question
Professional civilian police forces known as
serfients first appeared in 1829 in
Germany.
Russia.
Italy.
Bavaria.
France.
The Characteristics of Romanticism
Emotion, sentiment, and inner feelings
Reaction to Enlightenment’s preoccupation with reason
Romantic movement had its roots in Germany
Tragic figure
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832),
The Sorrows of the Young Werther
• Literary model for early Romantics
Individualism – interest in unique traits of each person
Rebellion against middle-class conventions – changes in hair, clothes
Interest in the past
Grimm Brothers (published local fairy tales)
Hans Christian Andersen (fairy tales from Denmark)
Walter Scott
• Best selling novels (Ivanhoe)
Gothic literature
Edgar Allan Poe (1808-1849)
Mary Shelley (1797-1851)
Possible Test Question
The romantic movement can be viewed as
a(n)
Reaction against the Enlightenment’s
preoccupation with reason.
Continuation of Enlightenment ideals and
practices.
Attempt to create a socialist society.
Movement of lower-class, less literate people.
Fascination with war and conflict.
Romantic Poets and the Love of
Nature
Poetry was the most important literary form
Artists focused on landscapes and nature
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
Prometheus Unbound (revolt of human against laws & customs)
Lord Byron (1788-1824)
Dramatized himself as a romantic hero (died in Greek revolt)
Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
The mysterious force of nature
Mirror where people could learn about themselves
Edgar Allan Poe
American romantic author of The Fall of the House of Usher
Critique of Science
Worship of nature led criticism of industrialized world
Shelly’s Frankenstein symbolized the dangers of science trying to conquer nature
Religion in the age of Romanticism
Catholic revival especially in Germany
Possible Test Question
Which of the following were major
themes/subjects of Romantic artists?
Portraits
Madonnas and religious scenes
Landscapes and depictions of nature
Scenes from aristocratic family life
Urban scenes.
Romanticism in Art and Music
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)
Symphonie Fantastique – first complete program
symphony
Casper David Friedrich (1774-1840)
Art depicted God and nature
Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863)
Most famous French Romantic artist
Passion for color
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
Beethoven, whose compositions bridged the gap
between Classicism and Romanticism
Romantic architecture favored Gothic style
Caspar David Friedrich, Man and
Woman Gazing at the Moon
Eugène Delacroix, The Death of
Sardanaplus