Transcript Japanese-American Internment

Japanese-American
Internment
Chinese-American Life in Late 19th and
Early 20th Century
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Generally lived in West
Discriminated against severely
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fear of “yellow menace”
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Truth: Asians small minority in Pacific
Chinese Exclusion Act forbade immigration from
China
General attitude of xenophobia during the period
U.S. vs. Wong Kim Ark
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Born in U.S. = U.S. citizen
Japanese Life in United States
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Gentlemen’s Agreement
 Asian segregation in Calif. insulted Japan
 “Gentlemen’s Agreement”: fair school treatment if Japan
restricted emigration
Japanese Issei (1st gen) could not become U.S. citizens
 “Alien’s ineligible for citizenship” under Naturalization Act
 Nevertheless prospered in farming, using children’s names (Alien
Land Law)
Economic, social, and employment discrimination
 Developed own communities; “Little Tokyo”
Cable Act of 1922
 “ineligible aliens” could not marry men for citizenship
 marrying an “ineligible alien” led to loss of citizenship
World War I
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Small feud b/t 2 countries escalated to massive war
w/ all of Europe in early 20th century.
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U.S. reluctantly became involved as well
France, Britain, Italy, Japan, and U.S. fought against
Germany and its allies
Germany lost
Treaty of Versailles
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Objective: revenge
 Great demilitarization and inflation in Germany
Japan and Italy’s voices ignored; virtually excluded from
conference
World War II
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Rising demagogue Adolf Hitler took
advantage of Germans’ resentments; Nazi
party came into power
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Germany became totalitarian
Developed massive program to subjugate, and
later exterminate, “undesirables” in concentration
camps
Ignored orders by Britain and France; Hitler
plotted to conquer all of Europe
Italy and Japan joined the bandwagon
Pearl Harbor and its effects
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Japan surprise-attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii
during WWII
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U.S. grew fearful of its Japanese-American inhabitants
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8 pm curfew
No traveling in vehicles or leaving 5 miles from home
Labeled “enemy aliens” even if citizens
Chinese and Koreans “looked like the enemy”
Proposals made for evacuation of Japanese (Executive
Order 9066)
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Japanese encouraged to leave Calif., Washing. & Oregon; few
wanted to; later forced to stay
Assembly Centers
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All Japanese-Americans, even Nisei required to report to
assembly points
 generally compliant; wanted to prove loyalty & no other choice
 Only permitted basic necessities; all possessions had to be
abandoned, sold or confided in others
 Sent to “assembly centers”
 Barbed wire
 No privacy
 Line up for bathrooms, meals, &c.
 Health/sanitary problems
 Developed communities: schools, newspapers, activities &c.
 Stayed at most 8 months; later sent to internment camps
Internment Camps
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Isolated from civilization; most out of California
Apartments held no kitchens or bathrooms
Developed small community gov’t; not that potent
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16+ voters
First time most Issei could vote
Camp life ruined family hierarchy
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No “breadwinners”
Children distanced from families
Nisei held advantage of being U.S. citizens
Gangs developed
Conflict in the Camps
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Fear of informers; beaten by gangs
Pro-American & Anti-American factions
developed
Manzanar Massacre
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Henry Ueno arrested for noticing food being
stolen by camp employees
Protest began; gov’t responded w/ tear gas
No-Nos
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Secretary of War and President proposed
allowing Japanese to serve in military
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Developed questionnaires to confirm loyalty
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#27: consent to conscription
#28: Loyal to U.S.; drop Japanese citizenship
Response surprisingly different from expectation; Nisei
insulted; Issei would lose all citizenship
Many Japanese asked to be sent back to Japan
Tule Lake became area for No-Nos, but still mixed
The
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Led to downfall of John DeWitt
Followed by conscription of all Nisei
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Regiment
Extremely effective in combat and changing
U.S. minds on Japanese-Americans
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nd
442
Some refused; insulting
Many were used as translators and spies
Called the “Christmas tree regiment”
Court Cases
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Hirabayashi v. U.S.
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Refused curfew and assembly call
Supreme Court did not favor Hirabayashi,
surprising him
Korematsu v. U.S.
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Ruled 6-3 that relocation and exclusion zones
were constitutional; impossible to segregate loyal
from not
3 argued ruling set precedent for all military orders
being constitutional
Court Cases (cont.)
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Endo v. U.S.
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Unlike Korematsu, Endo obeyed rules
Ruled in favor of Endo; exclusion & indefinite
imprisonment not OK, but internment still deemed
constitutional
Internment camps would be closed by end of
1945
Transitioning into Society
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Dillon Myer
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Ironically head of WRA (did not support
internment)
Sought to integrate Japanese into society once
able
By 1942, Japanese were permitted to work
outside if jobs available; had to be closely
supervised
Closure of Camps
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Roosevelt reluctant to let Japanese free
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Upcoming election may result in poor support
from Pacific
After elected, internment camps would be closed
by end of 1945
Response
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Most were happy, but others were fearful
Some regretted being No-Nos or renouncing
citizenship; under duress; Tule Lake stayed open
longest
End of World War II
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U.S. exercised atomic bomb on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki. WWII over.
Japanese Americans released, having lost
most possessions and still discriminated
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Mary Masuda, brother having died in war, was
threatened upon return
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She was publicized to reduce hostility
Anti-Japanese propositions in Calif. began to fail
Harry Truman passed Japanese American Claims
Act of 1948, giving a small sum for losses
End of World War II (cont.)
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Walter-McCarran Act allowed Issei to own
land & become citizens in 1952
1970s brought demands for redress, but
generally very few of them were successful.