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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Ed)
Chapter 10
Thinking v. Intuition
and Language
“ A bat and ball cost$1.10. The bat costs $1 more than the ball.
How much does the ball cost?”
“A man bought a horse for $60 and sold it for $70. Then he
bought the same horse back for $80 and again sold it for $90.
How much money did he make in the horse business?”
10, 4, 3, 11, 15, …?
100204180
YYURYYUBICURYY4ME
Question:
“All members of the cabinet
are thieves.” No composer
is a member of the cabinet.
What logical conclusion
can you draw?
Answer
Some thieves are not
composers or said another
way, there are thieves who
are not composers…
Tower of Hanoi
In only 7 moves, move the tower from
the left peg to the right peg, moving only
1 disk at a time and never putting a larger
disk on a smaller one… Good Luck!
Thinking
Cognition
mental activity associated with processing,
understanding, and communicating information
Cognitive Psychology
the study of these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgement formation
study of both logical and illogical thinking
Thinking
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, or
people
Hierarchies example- the address
• country, state, city, zip code, street, house or apt. #
Prototype
the best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a
quick and easy method for including items in a
category (as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin.)
Thinking
Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure
that guarantees solving a particular
problem
contrasts with the usually speedier –
but also more error-prone use of
heuristics
Thinking
Heuristic
rule-of-thumb strategy that often
allows us to make judgements and
solve problems efficiently
usually speedier than algorithms
more error-prone than algorithms
sometimes we’re unaware of using
heuristics
Thinking
Unscramble
SPLOYOCHYG
Algorithm
all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?
Thinking
Your brother has suffered from
chronic depression for several years.
Unfortunately, you have been
incorrectly informed by your parents
that there is a 40% chance you will
also suffer from depression. How can
your thinking lead you to believe
they’re right? Remember, TDA!
Thinking
Insight
sudden and often novel realization of the solution to
a problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING:
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirms
one’s preconceptions
Fixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective
impediment to problem solving
Thinking- Insight
Wolfgang Kohler’s experiment on insight by a
chimpanzee
The Matchstick
Problem
How would you
arrange six
matches to form
four equilateral
triangles?
The Matchstick
Problem
Solution to the
matchstick
problem
The Three-Jugs Problem
Using jugs A, B, and C with the capacities shown,
how would you measure out the volumes
indicated?
The Three-Jugs Problem
Given jugs of these sizes:
Problem
C
Measure out
this much water:
A
B
1
21
127
3
100
2
14
46
5
22
3
18
43
10
5
4
7
42
6
23
5
20
57
4
29
6
23
49
3
20
7
15
39
3
18
The Three-Jugs
Problem
Solution:
a) All seven problems
can be solved by the
equation shown in
(a): B-A-2C= desired
volume.
b) But simpler
solutions exist for
problems 6 and 7,
such as A-C for
problem 6.
Thinking
Mental Set
tendency to approach a problem
in a particular way
especially a way that has been
successful in the past but may or
may not be helpful in solving a new
problem
Thinking
Functional Fixedness
tendency to think of things
only in terms of their usual
functions
impediment to problem
solving
The Candle-Mounting
Problem
Using these
materials, how
would you
mount the
candle on a
bulletin board?
The Candle-Mounting
Problem
Solving this
problem
requires
recognizing that
a box need not
always serve as
a container
Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic
rule of thumb for judging the
likelihood of things in terms of how
well they seem to represent, or
match, particular prototypes
may lead one to ignore other
relevant information
Heuristics
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events
based on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind
(perhaps because of their vividness),
we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash
Thinking
Overconfidence
tendency to be more confident than
correct
tendency to overestimate the
accuracy of one’s beliefs and
judgements
Thinking
Framing
the way an issue is posed
how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and
judgements
Example: What is the best way to
market ground beef- As 25% fat
or 75% lean?
Thinking
Belief Bias
the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning
sometimes by making invalid conclusions
seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
designing and programming
computer systems
to do intelligent things
to simulate human thought processes
• intuitive reasoning
• learning
• understanding language
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
includes practical applications
chess playing
industrial robots
expert systems
efforts to model human thinking
inspired by our current understanding
of how the brain works
Artificial Intelligence
Computer Neural Networks
computer circuits that mimic the
brain’s interconnected neural cells
performing tasks
learning to recognize visual patterns
learning to recognize smells
Language, “The jewel in the
crown of cognition.”
Language
our spoken, written, or gestured
works and the way we combine them
to communicate meaning
Phoneme- Building block 1
in a spoken language, the smallest
distinctive sound unit, bat- b,a,t
Language
Morpheme- Building block 2
in a language, the smallest unit that carries
meaning
may be a word or a part of a word (such
as a prefix)
Grammar- Building block 3
a system of rules in a language that
enables us to communicate with and
understand others
Language
Semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning
from morphemes, words, and sentences in a
given language, ed= past
also, the study of meaning
Syntax
the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a given
language, adjective before noun- white house
Language
We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the
world’s languages
Percentage able 100
to discriminate
90
Hindi t’s
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Hindispeaking
adults
6-8
months
8-10
months
10-12
months
Infants from English-speaking homes
Englishspeaking
adults
Language
Babbling Stage
beginning at 3 to 4 months
the stage of speech development in which
the infant spontaneously utters various
sounds at first unrelated to the household
language
One-Word Stage
from about age 1 to 2
the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks mostly in single words
Language
Two-Word Stage
beginning about age 2
the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks mostly two-word
statements
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which the child
speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using
mostly nouns and verbs and omitting
“auxiliary” words
Language
Summary of Language Development
Month
(approximate)
Stage
4
Babbles many speech sounds.
10
Babbling reveals households
language.
12
One-word stage.
24
Two-word, telegraphic speech.
24+
Language develops rapidly into
Complete sentences.
Language
Genes design the mechanisms for
a language, and experience fills
them as it modifies the brain
Language
Environment
spoken language
heard
provides
input to
Genes
Brain
design
Mechanisms for
understanding and
producing language
Behavior
Mastery of
native
language
Language
Percentage
correct on
grammar
test
New language
learning gets
harder with
age
100
90
80
70
60
50
Native 3-7
8-10 11-15 17-39
Age at school
Language
Linguistic
Determinism/ Relativity
Whorf”s hypothesis that
language determines the way
we think
Language
Direction of
nectar source
The straight-line
part of the dance
points in the
direction of a
nectar source,
relative to the
sun
•Describe the nature of concepts and the role of prototypes in
concept formation.
•Discuss how we use trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and
insight to solve problems.
•Describe how the confirmation bias and fixation can interfere
with effective problem solving.
•Explain how the representative and availability heuristics
influence our judgments.
•Describe the effects that overconfidence and framing can have
on our judgments and decisions.
•Discuss how our beliefs distort logical reasoning, and describe
the belief perseverance phenomenon.
•Describe artificial intelligence, and contrast the human mind
and the computer as information processors.
•Describe the effects that overconfidence and framing can
have on our judgments and decisions.
•Discuss how our beliefs distort logical reasoning, and describe
the belief perseverance phenomenon.
•Describe artificial intelligence, and contrast the human mind
and the computer as information processors.
•Describe the structure of language in terms of sound in
terms of sounds, meanings, and grammar.
•Trace the course of language acquisition from the babbling
stage through the two-word stage.
•Explain how the nature-nurture debate is illustrated in
theories of language development.
•Discuss Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis and the
relationship between thought and language.
•Describe the research on animal cognition and
communication, and discuss the controversy over whether
animals can use language.