Transcript heuristics - AP Psychology

Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 10
Thinking and Language
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Thinking
 Cognition
 mental activities associated with thinking,
knowing, remembering, and communicating
 Cognitive Psychologists
 study these mental activities
 concept formation
 problem solving
 decision making
 judgment formation
Thinking
 Concept
 mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas, or people
 Prototype
 mental image or best example of a category
 matching new items to the prototype provides a
quick and easy method for including items in a
category (as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
Thinking
 Algorithm
 methodical, logical rule or procedure
that guarantees solving a particular
problem
 contrasts with the usually speedier–but
also more error-prone--use of heuristics
Thinking
 Heuristic
 simple thinking strategy that often
allows us to make judgments and
solve problems efficiently
 usually speedier than algorithms
 more error-prone than algorithms
Thinking
Unscramble
SPLOYOCHYG
 Algorithm
 all 907,208 combinations
 Heuristic
 throw out all YY combinations
 other heuristics?
Thinking
 Insight
 sudden and often novel realization of the solution to
a problem
 contrasts with strategy-based solutions
 Confirmation Bias
 tendency to search for information that confirms
one’s preconceptions
 Fixation
 inability to see a problem from a new perspective
 impediment to problem solving
The Matchstick
Problem
 How would you
arrange six
matches to form
four equilateral
triangles?
The Three-Jugs
Problem
 Using jugs A,
B, and C,
with the
capacities
shown, how
would you
measure out
the volumes
indicated?
The Candle-Mounting
Problem
 Using these
materials, how
would you
mount the
candle on a
bulletin board?
Thinking
 Mental Set
 tendency to approach a problem in
a particular way
 especially a way that has been
successful in the past but may or
may not be helpful in solving a new
problem
Thinking
 Functional Fixedness
 tendency to think of things
only in terms of their usual
functions
 impediment to problem solving
The Matchstick
Problem
 Solution to the
matchstick
problem
The Three-Jugs
Problem
 Solution:
a) All seven problems
can be solved by the
equation shown in
(a): B - A - 2C =
desired volume.
 b) But simpler
solutions exist for
problems 6 and 7,
such as A - C for
problem 6.
The Candle-Mounting
Problem
 Solving this
problem
requires
recognizing that
a box need not
always serve as
a container
Cognition and Jean Piaget
Children’s thinking goes through a set of
four stages
Children’s cognitive skills “unfold”
naturally as they grow and mature
Cognition and Lev Vygotsky
Psychologist Vygotsky asserted that children’s
sociocultural environment plays a crucial role in
cognitive development.
Language development is critical to cognitive
development
Cognitive development not based on stages;
rather it is based on interactions with significant
adults, cultural influences, and environmental
circumstances.
Approaches to
Problem Solving
 Trial and error - practical with small number of possible solutions
 Algorithms - step-by-step; guaranteed to achieve goal
 Deductive Reasoning - conclusion drawn from general premises
or statements; if premises are true, conclusion must be true: If all
birds have wings, then a penguin is a bird.
Inductive Reasoning - conclusion drawn from examples; likely,
but not necessarily true: Fish swim in the ocean, therefore all
creatures in the ocean are fish.
Heuristics – general rule of thumb that may lead to a correct
solution (not guaranteed): Do the easy questions first.
Heuristics
 Representativeness Heuristic
 judging the likelihood of things in
terms of how well they seem to
represent, or match, particular
prototypes
 may lead one to ignore other relevant
information
Heuristics
 Availability Heuristic
 estimating the likelihood of events
based on their availability in memory
 if instances come readily to mind
(perhaps because of their vividness),
we presume such events are common
 Example: airplane crash
Thinking
 Overconfidence
 tendency to be more confident than
correct
 tendency to overestimate the
accuracy of one’s beliefs and
judgments
Thinking
 Framing
 the way an issue is posed
 how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and
judgments
 Example: What is the best way
to market ground beef--as 25%
fat or 75% lean?
Thinking
 Belief Bias
 the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning
 sometimes by making invalid conclusions
seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
 Belief Perseverance
 clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
Artificial Intelligence
 Artificial Intelligence
 designing and programming
computer systems
 to do intelligent things
 to simulate human thought processes
 intuitive reasoning
 learning
 understanding language
Artificial Intelligence
 Computer Neural Networks
 computer circuits that mimic the
brain’s interconnected neural cells
 performing tasks
 learning to recognize visual patterns
 learning to recognize smells
Language
 Language
 our spoken, written, or gestured
works and the way we combine them
to communicate meaning
 Phoneme
 in a spoken language, the smallest
distinctive sound unit
Language
 Morpheme
 in a language, the smallest unit that carries
meaning
 may be a word or a part of a word (such as
a prefix)
 Grammar
 a system of rules in a language that
enables us to communicate with and
understand others
Language
 Semantics
 the set of rules by which we derive
meaning from morphemes, words, and
sentences in a given language
 also, the study of meaning
 Syntax
 the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a given
language
Language
 We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the
world’s languages
Percentage able 100
to discriminate
90
Hindi t’s
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Hindispeaking
adults
6-8
months
8-10
months
10-12
months
Infants from English-speaking homes
Englishspeaking
adults
Language
 Babbling Stage
 beginning at 3 to 4 months
 the stage of speech development in which
the infant spontaneously utters various
sounds at first unrelated to the household
language
 One-Word Stage
 from about age 1 to 2
 the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks mostly in single words
Language
 Two-Word Stage
 beginning about age 2
 the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks in mostly two-word
statements
 Telegraphic Speech
 early speech stage in which the child
speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using
mostly nouns and verbs and omitting
“auxiliary” words
Language
Summary of Language Development
Month
(approximate)
Stage
4
Babbles many speech sounds.
10
Babbling reveals households
language.
12
One-word stage.
24
Two-world, telegraphic speech.
24+
Language develops rapidly into
complete sentences.
Language
 Genes
design the
mechanisms
for a
language,
and
experience
activates
them as it
modifies the
brain
Language
Percentage
correct on
grammar
test
 New language
learning gets
harder with
age
100
90
80
70
60
50
Native 3-7
8-10 11-15 17-39
Age at school
Language
 Linguistic Determinism
 Whorf”s hypothesis that
language determines the way
we think
Language
 The interplay
of thought
and language
Animal Thinking and
Language
Direction of
nectar source
 The straight-line
part of the dance
points in the
direction of a
nectar source,
relative to the
sun
Animal Thinking and
Language
 Gestured Communication
Animal Thinking and
Language
 Is this
really
language?