Transcript Chapter 4 – wilhelm wundt and the founding of psychology

CHAPTER 9 –
FUNCTIONALISM: DARWIN,
GALTON, CATTELL, JAMES &
HALL
Dr. Nancy Alvarado
Midterm 2 Results
Score
Grade
N
43-55
A
8
38-42
B
9
33-37
C
13
28-32
D
8
0-27
F
2
Highest score = 48 (used to
set curve)
Functionalists
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Functionalists were the first major non-German
school of psychology.
They were interested in studying the functions of the
mind and the adaptive value of consciousness.
These concerns were a product of the intellectual
climate of the 19th century, dominated by Darwin’s
theory of evolution.
Their work was later extended by the American
functionalists at the Univ. of Chicago and Columbia.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
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
Darwin was born to a wealthy family with interests
in medicine and natural science.
The pivotal experience of his life was his 5-year
voyage on the Royal Navy survey ship, the H.M.S.
Beagle, where he collected specimens.
 He
first left med school & got a “poor” (third-class)
degree in religion.
 He was initially seeking confirmation of the Biblical
account of creation, but his experiences changed his
mind.
The Voyage of the Beagle
At each stop, Darwin travelled extensively inland.
Questions

Darwin’s findings raised many questions:
 Why
had God created so many different species?
 Why had God allowed giant armadillos (found as
fossils) to become extinct but not the smaller armadillos?
 Why had God allowed some species to become totally
extinct?
 How would there have been room on the ark for the
giant fossils?
 How could the earth have been created in 4004 BC
when the age of the fossils was much older?
The Galapagos Islands
The Galapagos Islands are
part of the country of
Ecuador.
Galapagos Observations


Tortoises from islands just 50-60 miles apart had
clearly different shells.
On one island, finches had strong thick beaks to
crack nuts and seeds, while on another island they
had smaller beaks and fed on insects.
 On
a third island they had beaks better suited for
eating fruit, berries & flowers.

Darwin wondered how such differences had
developed – perhaps species are not fixed but are
able to adapt and change over generations.
Theory of Evolution

Darwin’s eventual theory was influenced by writings
of several theorists before him:
 Darwin
read Quetelet’s summary of Malthus’s view of
population growth – Malthus predicted an increasingly
severe struggle for existence due to lack of food.
 “It at once struck me that, under these circumstances,
favorable variations would tend to be preserved and
unfavorable ones destroyed” Darwin wrote.
 He called this idea “Natural selection” or “Survival of
the Fittest.” (1859) He delayed publication for 20 yrs.
Publication of His Theory
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First Darwin published his journal “The Voyage of
the Beagle” which was very popular.
In 1858, he became aware of Wallace’s theory of
natural selection, and agreed to present both his
and Wallace’s theory jointly to the Linnean Society.
 There

was little reaction.
In 1859, he published his “Origin of the Species,”
which sold out immediately.
 His
theory was hotly debated (see famous Oxford
Wilberforce/Huxley debate on pg 308 of text).
Similarity of Man to Animals

Do we share behavioral, emotional and cognitive
characteristics with other species?
 In
“The Descent of Man,” Darwin argued that “there is
no fundamental difference between man and the
higher mammals in their mental faculties.” (1871)

Morgan’s canon: “In no case may we interpret an
action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher
psychical faculty if it can be interpreted as the
outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower
in the psychological scale.”
Mechanism
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Darwin suggested no genetic mechanism for
evolutionary change.
Lamarck proposed that acquired characteristics can
be inherited by offspring, speeding up change.
Gregor Mendel demonstrated inheritance of
physical characteristics in plants and laid the
foundation for modern genetics.
 This
was the mechanism for evolution.
Darwin’s Psychology

“The Expression of the Emotions in Man & Animals.”
 Darwin
studied facial expressions, anticipating later
research by Paul Ekman.

Darwin kept detailed records on the growth of his
son, Erasmus, and published them in “A Biographical
Sketch of an Infant” in Mind, 1877.
 His
methods were repeated by Jane Goodall, Piaget,
and B.F. Skinner.

Dar win’s theory raised questions about the
adaptive value of consciousness and mind & survival
Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Galton was one of the last amateur scientists, with
eclectic interests:
 Meteorologist,
experimented with stereoscopic photos,
studied fingerprints, invented an early teletype.

Anthropologist and explorer (sought source of the
Nile).
 Galton
was impressed by how well people he met had
adapted to their harsh desert environment (Kalahari).
 He published “Art of Travel.”
Individual Differences

Galton was interested in measuring things:
 Whenever
you can, count.” Fidgets per minute in kids,
middle-aged and elderly. “Beauty map” of Britain.

In 1884 he established an anthropometric
laboratory to collect data on individual differences.
 Psychometrics
– measurement of mental powers.
 Visual & auditory reaction times, highest audible tone.
 He published a method for quantifying correlation later
derived mathematically by Karl Pearson (r).
 He used questionnaires, associations & tests of imagery.
Galton as Hereditarian

In “Hereditary Genius” he discussed the relative
contributions of environment & genetics to ability.
 “I
propose to show in this book that a man’s natural
abilities are derived by inheritance under exactly the
same limitations as are the form and physical features
of the whole organic world.”
 He proposed that abilities were on the same continuum
as other physical traits – Quetelet’s law of deviation
from the average (like the normal curve).

Quetelet & Galton established the “normal man”.
Galton & Statistics

Galton developed the following terms:
 Median,
bell-shaped curve, correlation, dispersion,
interquartile range, regression, percentile.

Galton’s student Pearson introduced:
 Histogram,
kurtosis, random sampling, random walk,
skewness, standard deviation, variance.
 Formula for the correlation coefficient, Pearson’s r.

The concept of dealing with individual differences
in a probabilistic way – the characteristics of a
population are regular, even if people are not.
Nature and Nurture

Galton argued that because talent seemed to
concentrate in eminent families (Hereditary Genius),
individuals must be inheriting such abilities.
 He
introduced the terms nature vs nurture into the
debate and the idea of twin studies, see pg 322.


Candolle criticized this idea, cataloging the
favorable circumstances in eminent families.
In response, Galton wrote:
 “English
Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture.”
Galton and Eugenics

Galton was fascinated by the idea of human
improvement via genetic control, which he called
Eugenics.
 He

proposed voluntary means of improvement.
Eugenics societies and idea were widespread after
WWI – G.B. Shaw & Isadora Duncan (his brain…).
 Abuses
were justified in the name of eugenics, including
forced sterilization and restrictive immigration in the US.
 With the rise of the Nazis, these were implemented as
Hitler’s “final solution to the Jewish question.”
Inquiries into Human Faculties

In 1872, Galton published “Statistical Inquiries into
the Efficacy of Prayer.”
 He
advocated for the use of control groups in statistical
comparisons.
 Are prayers beneficial? Royalty have shorter lifespans.
 There is no evidence that missionary voyages are safer.

In his “Inquiry into Human Faculties and
Development,” the chapters on prayer were omitted
from future editions due to controversy.
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

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Cattell was one of the first students to get a Ph.D.
with Wundt, then he was appointed to Cambridge.
He was strongly influenced by Galton, and like
Galton measured everything he could about himself.
In 1888, Cattell founded a lab at the University of
Pennsylvania using Galtonian measures with
students but moved to Columbia College in 1891.
He discussed 10 mental tests in “Mental Tests and
Measurements,” published in Mind – The Freshman
Test.
Cattell’s Anthropometric Tests

The 10 tests included:
 Dynamometer
pressure, Rate of Movement, SensationAreas, Pressure causing Pain, Least Noticeable
Difference in Weight, Reaction-Time for Sound, Time for
Naming Colours, Bi-Section of a 50-cm. Line, Judgment
of 10 Seconds Time, Number of Letters Remembered on
One hearing.
 Wissler found no correlation between the tests.

These tests were abandoned in favor of better
mental measurements (see Chapter 11).
Cattell’s Other Work

Experimental research on judgments of relative
rank, such as shades of gray rank ordered on
brightness.
 Leading
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
psychologists ranked those in their profession.
Backgrounds of famous scientists – a person had the
best chance if their father were clergy or professor.
His famous students were: Thorndike, Woodworth,
Strong (vocational test).
Published Science (AAAS). Founding member of
APA. His company developed WAIS, WISC, TAT.
William James (1842-1910)
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
In early 20th century, America’s foremost
psychologist. First on everyone’s list (Cattell).
As a young man, James floated directionless,
rejecting chemistry, natural science, dabbling in
medicine, until finally discovering psychology.
 He
visited Fechner, Helmholtz,Wundt & DuBoisReymond.
 He finally graduated in medicine. He was offered a
job at Harvard teaching physiology & anatomy.
 He contemplated suicide at age 28.
Principles of Psychology
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In 1874, James taught his first class on physiology
and psychology (making it up as he went along).
In 1882, he took a leave of absence to visit
European psychologists again.
In 1890, he published Principles of Psychology
which became an instant classic.
Theodore Roosevelt was a famous student of James.
After the success of his book, he withdrew from
experimental research -- not worth the effort.
Link to Principles of Psychology
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
Available as an ebook that can be read on the
web:
http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/j/james/william/principles/complete.html
Eclectic & Philosopher

He became increasingly interested in mind-body
relationships and psychical phenomena.
 Psychosomatic
illness led to interest in “mind cures.”
 He studied automatic writing, telepathy, clairvoyance,
fortune-tellers, religious experience (energy flow).

He wrote “Pragmatism” expressing a practical
philosophy – pragmatic criteria for judging truth.
 All
beliefs are judged by their consequences in action.
 If a belief in God works, it is a pragmatic truth for that
person.
James as a Psychologist


He opposed the Wundt-Titchener approach.
He proposed an analytical approach that studies
the functions of consciousness & its characteristics.
 Consciousness
is adaptive – lets us adjust to environment
 Also, personal, ever-changing (a stream), selective.

James-Lange theory of emotion – the perception of
changes in the nervous system constitute emotion.
 Cannon

criticized this view
Habits are formed by nurture early in life.
Views on Memory

James said the strength of a memory depends on
the quality of the structure of the brain, an innate
characteristic not influenced by experience.
 Systematically
linking facts together might improve
memory.
 This contradicted the dominant view, formal discipline,
that said a general intellectual faculty could be
developed via exercise.

Memorizing poems (Victor Hugo’s Satyr and Milton’s
Paradise Lost), he demonstrated interference.
G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
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A contemporary of James, Hall grew up in a farm
family of Puritan heritage.
At age 16, he worked as a village school teacher.
Later, he attended Williams college and Union
Theological Seminary in NYC.
In 1869, he went to Europe, then returned &
finished seminary and taught at Antioch College.
He ultimately did his Ph.D at Harvard, then went
back to Europe to study in Wundt’s lab.
Hall’s Early Career

Hall lectured on the German psychologists at
Harvard and Johns Hopkins which led to a job there
 The
president of Johns Hopkins created fellowships for
grad students which attracted excellent students.
 Hall founded a great psychology dept and The
American Journal of Psychology.

Hall was the founding president of Clark University.
 Lots
of problems, including being raided by Univ of
Chicago (2/3 of faculty & 70% grad students left).

Hall helped found the APA in 1892 & was president
Hall as Developmentalist
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In 1883, Hall developed questionniares for Boston
kindergarten children to assess the content of their
minds – how children think.
He was the first psychologist to describe
adolescence as a separate stage.
He stressed the importance of genetics & evolution.
 He
developed a recapitulation theory (embryological
development recapitulates evolutionary development).

As he grew older he became interested in aging.
Hall vs Margaret Mead
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Hall felt that adolescent “storm & stress” was
largely biological, mediated by family & culture.
Mead disagreed, using a 1928 ethnography of
Samoa to depict adolescents as free of turmoil.
Freeman (1983) criticized Mead’s book, claiming
that she had diminished “the aggression, violence,
and rivalry of Samoan life and exaggerated
thedegree of sexual freedom.”
Orans (1996) supported Freeman, not Mead.
Mead in Samoa
Although flawed, her book
is still the most widely
read book in anthropology.
The Clark Conference
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
Hall organized the first opportunity for Americans
to meet Freud.
Freud gave 5 lectures, Jung gave 3 lectures – both
received honorary degrees.
The lectures were published, bringing them to a
wider audience.