Transcript Foundations of Modern Europe

Foundations of Modern
Europe
The Crusades
The Middle ages
(500-1460)
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The Middle Ages spans the end of the Roman Empire to the
beginning of the Age of Discoveries
It is divided into 3 stages from Early, High and Late Medieval
periods
Life in Europe was harsh with periods of starvation, barbarian
invasions, the Black plague and frequent wars
Travel was very dangerous during this time period, nevertheless,
people traveled as far as China such as Marco Polo’s travels
Trade was the main reason for this travel, especially silk and spices
from China that were transported through central Asia to the
markets in the west
in Africa, caravans trudged across the Sahara, while in the
Mediterranean Sea, Venetian ships sailed to different trading
posts
During the High period Charles Martel, Charlemagne, attempted
to unify Europe with the creation of the Holy Roman Empire as a
way of pacifying warring kings and princes and nullifying
nationalist tendencies
at this time, most of Europe was made up of small kingdoms,
principalities and city states that made alliances with each other
and then broke them
The Middle ages
(500-1460)
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During this period Christian knights of Europe set out on crusades
to free the Holy Land from “infidels” as Christians called the
Muslims who controlled Palestine
Europeans were very superstitious and the Church was the center
of politics, education and society
By the Late medieval period much had changed as a result of the
Crusades and the Renaissance
“nationalism”- pride in one’s county or the sense of belonging to a
particular country was slowly growing but loyalty to your King was
ordered by God
many wars were undertaken in the name of religion as Christians
dealt with Luther’s Reformation
Many people had become disillusioned with the Vatican’s
corruption; they looked to Classical thought and a shifted from
focusing on God to focusing on humankind
By far the most important invention of the Middle ages came at its
close; Johannes Gutenberg’ Printing Press -- suddenly learning
came within the reach of everyone who could read
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Holy War
In the 11th Century World much of the Middle East and
the spice routes are off limits to Christians. Christians
are, however, allowed to due pilgrimages to Palestine
(Jerusalem).
Islam’s spread has for a while been stopped by the
early 10th Century. A period of in-fighting between
Muslims or Moors; Umayyad Caliphate and the
Almoravids period begins.
The Reconquista on the Iberian Peninsula begins in
earnest at this time with ‘El-Cid’ and other Spanish and
Portuguese kings trying to retake the Peninsula. In
1065 the Pope recognizes this as the first Holy War or
Crusade and gives his official blessing for a Holy
War.
The Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium is now
under invasion from the Seljuk Turks and suffers
major defeats. The Byzantium Emperor asks the Pope
for help. These new Muslim rulers massacre Christian
pilgrims in Palestine.
In 1095, Pope Urban II called on Christian leaders to
free the Holy Land from the infidels in what becomes
known as the First Crusade.
the First Crusade was a disorganized combination of
two groups; the people’s army led by 2 well meaning
men named Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless;
the other led by rich aristocratic knights.
Holy War
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Crusader armies raped, pillaged and plundered
their way down to Palestine. Even resorting to
cannibalism (Ma`arat al-Nu`man) and the
massacre of Jerusalem.
at first the Seljuk Turks left the kingdom alone, but 8
more Crusades followed. The Third Crusade is led
by Richard the Lion Hearted of England and Salah
al-Din Yusuf will retake Jerusalem by 1187.
By 1295, the Christians had been thrown out of all
the Middle East.
many of the Crusaders were more interested in
personal gain than religion and they quarreled
among themselves
by the 14th Century, Europe had lost interest in the
Crusades although there were several more
attempts to organize Crusades, they all failed
Results of the Crusades
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For a while
Europeans get a taste
of the good life –
Spices, medicines,
knowledge.
Two new and
powerful military
forces appears in
Europe as the
Knights Templar
and the Knights
Hospitaller.
The seeds of the
European
Renaissance are
sown as Muslim
libraries in Iberia are
translated and lost
knowledge is
regained.
The Muslims see the
Crusades as a
European invasion
and have their own
Jihad to expel the
‘infidels’.
Results of the Crusades
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New knowledge and desire for
spices lead Portugal to begin a new
quasi Crusade against the Muslims
as they set sail for the East and
begin the Age of Discoveries.
Spain, eager to get in on the spice
trade, contracts Christopher
Columbus in 1492 to discover a
western trade route to India. As a
result the Americas are discovered.
This age of discoveries brings with it
the age of colonialism which will
last until the 1970s.
The Renaissance
(1350-1550)
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the French term ‘Renaissance’
means rebirth and it applied to this
period because of the acquiring of
knowledge based on ancient
Greco-Roman thinkers such as
Plato, Aristotle and Cicero and a
renewed interest in Greco-Roman
culture
this period marks the start of
modern history
Europeans started to emerge form
the narrow confines of the Middle
Ages to travel beyond their own
continent – Age of Discoveries
this time period provided profound
changes in attitudes and ideas
and the resulting artistic and
intellectual achievements
education, art, science and
architecture were all affected as
people began to question what
they were told
The Renaissance
(1350-1550)
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In all areas there began to be a
shift from God to man and a
desire for knowledge – known
as ‘Humanism’
Architecture was obsessed with
symmetry, proportion and
geometry as well as aesthetics
The Printing Press is invented
by Johannes Guttenberg
helping people to get books like
never before
It is during the renaissance that
seeds of the Scientific
Revolution are laid
largely unknown to most
Europeans at the start of this
period, other civilizations
(Islam, India and China) were
flourishing
Why Italy?
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Geography and the Church were the
two biggest reasons for Italy being the
center of the Renaissance.
Situated between western Europe and
Byzantium and lying along the
Mediterranean coasts, it established
a great trading network.
The wealth of these city states allowed
for the development of a middle
class with wealthy merchants
replacing nobility.
Rome and the Papal States were the
center of learning and life and many of
the Muslim texts from the
Reconquista were translated here in
monasteries and other church centres.
Why Italy?
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As Byzantium was besieged by
the Turks more Greek and
Byzantium refugees settled in
Italy bringing knowledge with them
as well
Merchants had access to this
knowledge and began to move
away from focusing on God to
focusing on man or Humanism
Merchants became the main
driving force behind the
Renaissance as they paid for art
and architecture in an effort to
enjoy life.
Renaissance Art
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Francesco Petrarca (1341) founder of Humanism
believed that true eloquence and ethical wisdom
could be found by looking to the ancients like
Virgil and Cicero
Florence and the Medici family symbolize the
Renaissance Italy (1400)
Cosimo Medici made Florence his banking
empire capital and spent over 600,000 gold
florins on arts, education and architecture in his
lifetime
In keeping with Humanism artists portrayed
subjects in lifelike human form and realistic
positions. They used different techniques to
create a 3-D perception.
Some of the earliest masters were Brunelleschi
and Donatello who created the first sculpture of
David which Michelangelo would later
immortalize with his own.
Renaissance Art
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The Palazzo de Medici is one of
the finest architectural pieces of the
Renaissance but Florence is itself a
giant renaissance architecture
museum.
The Renaissance style places
emphasis on symmetry,
proportion, geometry and the
regularity of parts as they are
demonstrated in the architecture
of classical antiquity and in
particular ancient Roman
architecture, of which many
examples remained. Orderly
arrangements of columns, pilasters
and lintels, as well as the use of
semicircular arches, hemispherical
domes and niches replaced the
more complex proportional systems
and irregular profiles of medieval
buildings.
Renaissance
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REBIRTH
Focus is on learning knowledge from the ancients as the best
source for they had it all figured out.
This means moving away from the church and the bible as the
source of all truth.
Translations of works from Muslims and old archives in the
monasteries reveal the ancient works and are heavy in demand.
HUMANISM
A natural transition begins where man becomes the center of
interest as opposed to being the ‘original sin’ in God’s creation
(Adam and Eve). This move is justified by the idea from the
bible that Man is God’s creation and image therefore the
greatest of all his creations. Therefore, it is right to worship man
and all his abilities – Humanism is born.
This fascination with man, nature and the ancients will
eventually lead to the Scientific Revolution and the age of
Enlightenment.
Renaissance Philosophy
Pillars of the Renaissance
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Francesco Petrarca (1304 -1374)
Considered the father of the Renaissance and founder of Humanism.
Writer of poetry and love letters
Researches and writes about the ancient philosophers like Cicero
He joins the Priesthood when his parents die and he has no way to make a
living.
He studies law and later philosophy and the ancients.
He quits the priesthood when he falls in love with a woman called `Laura` but
she is married and they cannot be together. Many of his poems and letters
are about his love for her.
Loses most of his family to the plague – son, grandson, Laura, friends, etc.
His writings are read by everyone who`s anyone and attracts wealthy and
aristocratic attention.
His writings influence many future writers such as Shakespeare.
He is also very influential in the development of Italian as a national
language.
He emphasizes that since man is God`s creation then anything man can
create or think up is great too. Man should be studied and celebrated and
he sees the ancient writers as having already done much of this.
For the rich men of the time it relieved them from a dilemma of enjoying life
and acquiring wealth since Petrarca pointed out that man should try to
achieve as much as possible in everything as part of his spirituality.
Renaissance Art
Cicero`s Appeal
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His writings concerned the defense, and if possible the
improvement, of the Roman Republic.
He argued that his contemporary politicians were corrupt as opposed
to the noble Roman founders . This loss of virtue was, he believed,
the cause of the Republic’s difficulties.
Rome would improve only if the Roman elite chose to improve their
characters and place commitments to individual virtue and social
stability ahead of their desires for fame, wealth, and power.
The elite then would lead by example and force the rest of society
to do the same.
Cicero spent a lot of time trying to convince Roman society that
philosophy was a worthwhile art.
Greek philosophy was ahead of all others so Cicero translated
many Greek works into Latin.
Without this we would not have knowledge of many of the Greek
writings.
Inventing Latin words where none seemed suitable for Greek
concepts (including the Latin words which give us the English words
morals, property, individual, science, image, and appetite).
Renaissance Philosophy
Cicero and Hummanism
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Cicero discussed two Greek schools of philosophical thought: Stoicism and Academy or Academic Skeptics
Stoicism held that the gods existed and loved human beings.
Both during and after a person’s life, the gods rewarded or punished human beings according to their conduct in life.
The gods had also provided human beings with the gift of reason and that the best, most virtuous, and most divine
life was one lived according to reason, not according to the search for pleasure.
This did not mean that humans had to shun pleasure, only that it must be enjoyed in the right way. For example, it
was fine to enjoy sex, but not with another man’s wife. It was fine to enjoy wine, but not to the point of shameful
drunkenness.
Finally, the Stoics believed that human beings were all meant to follow natural law, which arises from reason. The
natural law is also the source of all properly made human laws and communities
Humans therefore have an obligation to take part in politics (so far as is possible) in order to discharge those duties.
Cicero always considered himself to be an Academic Skeptic
a belief that human beings cannot be certain in their knowledge about the world so no philosophy can be said to be
true.
One must be able to argue all sides of an argument or issue to understand and accept any belief.
The Academic Skeptics mostly criticized everything and did not offer solutions; Cicero, though, does offer solutions.
The idea that one must question everything and cannot be sure of anything is a challenge to the Church`s hold on
society. It contradicts the notion of faith which requires no questioning just believing.
Cicero`s Death
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Cicero`s life in politics was his ultimate demise and he and his family were executed on Marc Antony`s orders and his
head and hands were nailed to the Senate doors as a warning to other dissenters.
Renaissance Art
Leonardo Da Vinci
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Da Vinci is the symbol of the Renaissance Man
Inventor, painter, sculptor, scientist, writer, architect, engineer and more
Born in the Renaissance period (1452 – 1519)
Illegitimate son of Piero Da Vinci near Florence
Worked most of his life in Italy and some in France
Mostly in Florence, Milan and Rome
Learned under earlier Master Andrea del Verrocchio of the Renaissance to
become the greatest of them all
Because he did not learn Latin well he had to rely on his senses to develop his
ideas
Artists relied on the patronage of wealthy aristocracy or merchants who paid for
their work
Notorious for not keeping to his contracts or deadlines he often was not liked
during his time
Da Vinci seemed to play down his painting and sculpting when trying to get work
often appealing to princes and kings to hire him for his engineering skills
Few hired him for anything but artistry though today we recognize his genius for
his designs for tanks, planes and other machines
His famous art work includes the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper, the Vitruvius man
(man in the circle)
Depending on the politics he either worked for one city state or another
His work exemplifies Humanism as it centerpiece is man; 3D, proportional
and glorifying the human body
His study into anatomy and engineering broke new ground in areas that were
traditionally left to superstition and religion and threatened him with heresy
Leonardo was reputed to be a vegetarian and perhaps even a Jain
Renaissance Art
Renaissance Politics
Lorenzo de Medici
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Grandson of Cosimo de Medici, he and his family ran a banking
business that made them rulers of Florence although Florence was
technically a republic
The Medici wealth and banking interests had them embroiled in the politics
of Italy and much of Europe including England and France
The Medici family had always invested heavily in the arts and knowledge;
they were enthusiasts of the Renaissance and Humanist movements since
they had wealth and wanted to enjoy it
Lorenzo himself was a poet, philosopher and founded the world’s first
academy of art
Lorenzo hired Leonardo and had him in Florence for a some time until he
became embroiled in the Pazzi Conspiracy; Lorenzo and his brother were
assaulted in the historic church the Duomo but Lorenzo survived with a
neck wound.
Retribution was swift and thorough including the execution of Archbishop
Salviati for his role in the conspiracy and the Pazzi family was stripped of
all possessions and many members executed all across Europe
Pope Sixtus IV was infuriated although he was behind it too. He brought
the King of Naples into a war with Florence that almost bankrupted the
Medici. Lorenzo was excommunicated by the Pope.
Leonardo possibly flees the war or leaves due to the hardships going on in
Florence and ends up working for the Duke of Milan; perhaps sent to
Sforza as a gift
Sixtus IV had put a request for all the best artists to come to Rome to work
on the Chapel and other works but Leonardo was not on the list; perhaps
because he was so closely affiliated with the Medici even though Lorenzo
did not have close ties to him
The Protestant Reformation
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By the early 1500s Europe had changed so much
Charlemagne wouldn’t have recognized it
Vatican corruption and scandals, the Babylonian
Captivity (Avignon) and the Great Schism (Urban VI
the true pope and Clement VII as an anti-Pope)
Resentment of church’s wealth, power and control over
everyday life
Challenges to theology from science such as Copernicus
and Galileo
the movement to change the church was called the
Reformation and led by Martin Luther
it led to a split in Christianity between Catholics and
Protestants that led to religious wars
King Henry VIII uses Protestantism to create the
Anglican Church of England and break from the
Vatican
The Church responds to reformation with the
“Inquisition” and persecutes heretics
Northern Europe becomes largely protestant while
southern Europe remains Catholic
Religion is carried to the new World with more zeal by
Conquistadores from Portugal and Spain
Religious wars take a toll and eventually lead to the
notion of separation of Church and state
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It began in Germany when a priest called Martin
Luther (1483-1546) nailed a list of 95 Theses to the
church door at Wittenberg
it gave details of all he thought was wrong with the
Church
most of all, Luther hated the Church’s sale of
“indulgences”- these certificates forgave people of
their sins, and could be bought from the church for
money
Luther also believed that man was saved by faith
alone and not by good works or by the sale of
indulgences and that there were only two
sacraments: baptism and the Eucharist
he wanted faith to be based on the scriptures in the
Bible and not on religious ceremonies; he also
believed that Bible readings were important and that
services should be in the local language, NOT in
Latin
Luther hoped his list would lead to debate in the
church, but instead he was accused of heresy (going
against church beliefs)
he refused to take back his words and was
excommunicated from the Catholic Church in 1521
however, by this time Luther had gained support in
Northern Germany and Switzerland
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he set up his own church and his followers were called Lutherans
The Pope, Clement VII, besides excommunication of those involved,
relied on Charles V of Spain, the Holy Roman Emperor and his
troops, to actively put down the heretics in the German states thus
driving the German princes away from Rome and determined to protect
themselves and the Lutherans
Further problems arose when Clement got involved between the
Spanish and French courts in their battles over some of the Italian
states.
The Emperor had invested much in Italy and when Clement flipped
allegiances like the wind he ordered his troops to sack Rome (1527)
and imprison the Pope
after 1529, Lutherans were renamed Protestants when they protested
against attempts to limit their teachings
Calvinism and Puritanism
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a man named Ulrich Zwingli led the Reformation in Switzerland
which divided the country along religious lines
his views were more extreme than Luther’s and in 1524 he banned
Catholic mass in Zurich
This led to a civil war and the Second Battle of Kappel in which
Zwingli was killed
Another man that was very influential in this movement was John
Calvin (1509-1564); he was born in France and studied law and
theology before becoming involved in the Reformation
he believed in predestination (that God had already ordained the
future) and that only people chosen by God, the Elect, would be saved
John Calvin
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Jean Cauvin or John Calvin (1509-1564)
studied at first to be a priest in the Catholic
Church in France.
Later he turned to being a lawyer and
meeting many humanist/reformers in his
studies.
In the 1530’s Calvin began writing and
preaching against the Church and promoting
Protestant ideals.
He eventually had to flee and ended up in
Switzerland where he took over the
Protestant sects.
He was greatly influenced by Zwingli’s work
and would go even further in his own
reforms.
He became known as “Defender of the
Faith” after he ordered the burning of
Michael Servetus as a heretic for denying
the Holy Trinity.
His beliefs will end up being the foundation
of American society and has left its mark
even today
Many of the Pilgrims were Calvinists
Calvin’s beliefs
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he believed in predestination (that God had already ordained the future)
and that only people chosen by God, the Elect, would be saved
‘saints’ were living, breathing human beings who had been elected by god
to be saved
The Calvinist churches could elect who would be members and all those in
the church were obviously saints who would be saved
Calvinist churches were free to search out for their members and the
members could be part of whichever church they wanted
Luther’s concept of a ‘priesthood of believers’ presented a problem in
how to determine leaders when everyone is equal
Calvin’s churches solved this by having “Voluntary Association”. People
could pick their church freely but the church had to agree to accept them in
This is an early version of what will become known as the SOCIAL
CONTRACT
He believed that the bible had to be taken literally and in the Holy Trinity
He developed a moral code for all that revolved around
Results of the Reformation
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Civil wars and foreign wars break out across Europe
Persecutions follow whereby Catholics and Protestants are forced to convert or die
England brutally suppresses Catholicism to replace it with Anglicanism
The Spanish Netherlands revolts and begins a 40 year civil war of extreme brutality and ends in an
independent United Provinces of the Netherlands (Holland)
The 30 years war begins in the German states; an extremely brutal war which will involve most of
Europe
The Treaty of Westphalia will result in the principle of the separation of Church and State
Protestants will split into Anglicans, Lutherans, Calvinists and Puritans
Religious differences and intolerances will be brought to the Americas and be a source of
conflict
Religious Wars
French Religious Wars
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The Protestant Reformation sparked several serious wars as
both people and political leaders either accepted or rejected
these ideas
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"Une foi, un loi, un roi," (one faith, one law, one king) was
France’s traditional motto. The Church preached that Kings
ruled by Divine Right and the King promised to defend the faith.
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Spain’s King was the Holy Roman Emperor and he too had a
vested interest in keeping the Faith.
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German and English crowns had their own motives for breaking
with the Roman faith
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From the 1530s to 1648 Europe was a blood bath of religious
wars
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French Huguenots wars raged from 1562 to 1598 when Henry
IV, a Huguenot, took the throne but reconverted to Catholicism
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There were more than 9 wars in this period where French fought
French in a bid for the Catholic or Calvinist souls
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The Massacre on St. Bartholomew’s Eve in Paris during the
Wedding of Queen Catherine de Medici’s daughter to Henry the
IV
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It was only with the Edict of Nantes in 1598 that France knew
peace (Huguenots were restricted to 200 towns)
Religious Wars
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Spanish Netherlands Wars
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Phillip II of Spain was by inheritance also the King of
the Low Countries (Spanish Netherlands)
By 1566 though, Calvinists in the Low Countries were
protesting Catholic rule and especially taxes
The Emperor sent his nephew, Duke of Parma, to
govern over them and through a combination of carrot
and stick he managed to retake at one point all the
Netherlands
Eventually, by the early 1600s it was plain that the
northern provinces were united and would be
independent. These became known as Holland today
and the other provinces would eventually become
known as Belgium give or take a few provinces.
In 1609 a truce was established that would allow the
northern provinces to worship freely and they had
gained independence.
War broke out again in 1621 and did not end until the
Treaty of Westphalia in 1648
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Religious Wars
The 30 Years War
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In 1555, Charles V had signed the Peace of
Augsburg allowing 255 German states to
choose their own religion
This changed however when Calvinists
rose on the scene in the German countries
– they had no say
When a Catholic Ferdinand III of
Styria(Germany) took control of Bohemia a
revolt ensued and war between Catholics,
Lutherans and Calvinists broke out
Eventually, Spain, France, England,
Holland, Austria and many German
principalities joined in the fray
From 1618 to 1648 war raged across
central Europe until the Treaty of
Westphalia was signed
Spain was bankrupt and exhausted and
from here on would never be the major
power of Europe again
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Treaty of Westphalia
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Principle of whoever Rules the country
determines the religion
All lands secularized by the Protestants could
remain
All states of the Holy Roman Empire were free
and independent states
Calvinism is accepted as a religion
Holland is recognized as an independent country
from Spain
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The Counter-Reformation by the Church had
Been checked!
Scientific Revolution
1500s to 1700s
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This was a revolution of the greatest magnitude
It changed how people thought about everything
In Medieval times people believed that everything was a result of God
Ptolemy’s universe had 5 elements which were Air, Water, Fire and Earth, and
Aether
Aristotle’s earth was the center of the universe and all heavenly bodies
revolved around it
Nicolas Copernicus blew the lid off of this by proving that the universe was
heliocentric
Isaac Newton, Galileo, Johannes Kepler, Descartes, Francis Bacon are just
some of the greatest thinkers of the time
Mathematics and astrology became the intellectual’s international language
and source for explaining everything
Observation rather than faith became the focus of human activity
Timeline
1543: Andreas Vesalius Publishes On the Fabric of the Human Body (Investigates the
Human Body)
1543: Nicolas Copernicus Publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the
Revolutions of Celestial Bodies) Copernicus' masterwork; he sets out the heliocentric
theory.
1584: Giordano Bruno Publishes The Ash-Wednesday Supper, On Cause, Principle,
and Unity, and On the Infinite Universe and Its Worlds The universe is infinitely large and
that the Earth is by no means at the center of it. Bruno is burned at the stake as a heretic.
1591: Francois Viete Invents Analytical Trigonometry Viete's invention is essential to the
study of physics and astronomy.
1591: Galileo Galilei Demonstrates the Properties of Gravity Galileo demonstrates, from
the top of the leaning tower of Pisa, that two different wieghts fall at the same speed thus
destroying the Aristotelian system that the rate of fall of an object is dependent upon its
weight.
1610: Galileo Publishes Messenger of the Heavens The Inquisition soon warns Galileo to
desist from spreading his theories.
1614: John Napier Publishes Description of the Marvelous Canon of Logarithms
Napier's invention and cataloguing of logarithms.
1618: Johannes Kepler Reveals His Third and Final Law of Planetary Motion Kepler's
laws of planetary motion are the final step leading to the academic rejection of the
Aristotelian system.
1620: Francis Bacon Publishes Novum Organum -- Father of Modern Science
• Purge your mind of prejudices—what Bacon called “superstition.”
•Collect observations and experiences systematically.
•Stop, survey what you have seen, and draw initial conclusions
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1630: Galileo Publishes Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World Galileo's magnum opus uses the
laws of physics to refute the claims that the laws of terrestrial physics are no different than the laws of celestial
physics.
1633: Galileo is Forced to Recant his Theories The Inquisition forces Galileo to sign a recantation and
condemns him to house arrest for the rest of his life.
1637: Rene Descartes Publishes His Discourse on Method Descartes' work sets forth the principles of
deductive reasoning as used in the modern scientific method.
1637: Rene Descartes Publishes Geometry In this landmark work, Descartes discusses how motion may be
represented as a curve along a graph, defined by its relation to planes of reference.
1643: Evangelista Torricelli Invents the Barometer Torricelli's invention measures air pressure and proves air
has weight that differs depending on environment.
1656: Otto von Guericke Invents the Air Pump
1662: The Royal Society of London is Officially Organized by King Charles II The Royal Society brings
together the greatest minds of the region in efforts to advance science through cooperation.
1666: Robert Boyle Publishes Origin of Form and Qualities Boyle's work, though highly flawed, sets the stage
for the study of matter on the atomic level.
1680: Giovanni Alfonso Borelli Publishes On the Motion of Animals Borelli's work is the greatest early triumph
of the application of mechanical laws to the human organism.
1687: Isaac Newton Publishes Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica Perhaps the most important
event in the history of science, the Principia lays out Newton's comprehensive model of the universe as organized
according to the law of universal gravitation. The Principia represents the integration of the works of all of the great
astronomers who preceded Newton, and remains the basis of modern physics and astronomy.
1692: The Salem Witch Trials Take Place in Massachusetts Indicative of the maintenance of traditional
superstitions even late in the seventeenth century, 200 people are tried for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts.
Over 7,000 women were executed for witchcraft in Europe between 1550 and 1700, largely in association with the
various theological battles of the Reformation.
Results of the Scientific
Revolution
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The Renaissance had opened the doors to scientific inquiry but at the beginning of the
scientific revolution men still clung to the ancient Greek and Roman texts as the foundation of
truth
The Printing Press allowed for an explosion of books and different thinkers were exchanging
ideas with each other
Scientists soon found that the ancients didn’t know everything or were wrong about many
things so how were people to know the truth if the bible nor the ancients had the facts
Descartes Discourse on Methods established the idea of using deduction and
hypothesis to prove things: the scientific method is born.
Descartes moved from science to philosophy and looked at the human body and tried to prove
that the mind and soul existed. Known as Cartesian philosophy : “I reflect, therefore I
am!”
Sir Francis Bacon was instrumental in applying ethics and rules for scientific study by
cautioning against the bias and superstitions that in the past, led people to mistakes. He also
introduces the inductive type of reasoning for scientific study.
The Scientific Revolution did not immediately change the European world – it itself had to be
cautious and profess the study of science as a way of admiring God’s creations
Most people were poor and illiterate and did not change their superstitious ways for
generations but they would benefit from this revolution in economic, political and social ways
This revolution led to the age of Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution and
Democracy
All the while Europe would see a Feudal System move to an Absolute Monarchy System to an
Enlightened Dictator system to a Democratic and Republican system.
Scientific Revolution
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Reason is the greatest enemy that faith has. It never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but
struggles against the divine Word, treating with contempt all that emanates from God.
-Martin Luther
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All nature and nature’s law lay hid in night
God said let Newton be and all was light.
-Alexander Pope
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The real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and
riches.
-Francis Bacon
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Science has done more for the development of western civilization in one hundred years that
Christianity has done in eighteen hundred years.
-John Burroughs
Absolutism vs Constitutional Monarchy
(1600-1790)
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The changes of the Renaissance and
Scientific Revolution had a deep impact on
notions of gov’t
People were becoming more nationalistic and
less believing in the church and its vision of
the Holy Roman Empire
Leaders in different countries began to nurture
their own power above that of the Vatican
Two totally different systems develop at
almost the same time: the French Absolute
Monarchy and the English Constitutional
Monarchy
Both will have repercussions on how Europe
will develop, economically, politically, socially
and in the Colonial world
Both will play a role in the development of
democracy as we know it today yet it is
France, not Britain that will be the first
democracy and republic in Europe
Absolute Monarchy
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Louis IV is the classic symbol of an Absolute
Monarch (1638-1715)
He believed strongly in the old French motto
of “One faith, one law, one king!”
He believed also strongly in the Divine
Right of Kings theory whereby the king was
answerable only to God
His father Louis XIII began the difficult task
of making France the supreme power of
Europe
Two things had to be subdued, the
Church and the Nobility
Key to this was the appointment of Cardinal
Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin as prime
ministers during Louis XIII’s rule
Also important was Louis XIV’s appointment
of Colbert as finance minister
Louis XIV was an expert at managing
people and making sure they did not attain
too much power
Absolute Monarchy
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Louis had his previous Finance Minister Fouquet charged with embezzlement and declared
Colbert, lesser nobility, his Comptroller
Louis also declared that he would be his own Prime Minister
Louis XIV referred to himself as the “Sun King” and proclaimed that “L'état c’est moi!” or “I am
the State!”
He successfully reduced the nobility’s power during the ‘Fronde’ insurrection turning them into
mere servants of the King
He issued the Edict of Nantes (1685) and which prohibited Protestantism and destroyed the
Huguenots in France thus making France of one Faith
It also resulted in 200,000 fleeing France, thousands being executed and imprisoned.
He instituted the old policy of “Gallicanism” and issued the “Declaration of the Clergy of
France”. In it he refused to pay the Vatican certain tax monies and only the King would now
appoint Cardinals and Bishops. French clergymen could not leave France without his
permission. In effect he made the church subservient to the King.
Reformed tax and trade practices.
Reformed the legal code to what would be the foundations of the “Napoleonic code”.
Won several wars and increased the size and power of France.
Reformed the military creating the first true professional army – the musketeers. The Secretary
of War would collect taxes and pay the soldiers – the ‘intendents’.
Patron to the arts he showed off his power with the building of the Palace of Versailles
In many respects Louis saw himself as a Benevolent King and proof that absolute monarchy
was the best system of government.
After his death the monarchy quickly declined so that his great grandson, Louis XVI would
become the symbol of everything that was wrong with absolutism
Versailles
The English Experiment
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Events in England led to a different
development in the search for a system of
Gov’t
There was the tradition and precedent of the
Magna Carta (1215) which limited the rights
of Kings and protected the people’s rights
King Henry VIII, last king of the Tudors,
broke from the church when the Pope
refused him a divorce from his Queen
Catherine of Aragon; aunt to the Emperor
Charles V
He establishes the Protestant Anglican
Church of England and effectively breaks
from Rome forever being excommunicated in
1533
Queen Elizabeth I eventually takes over as
the last of the Tudor dynasty and her reign
(1558 -1603) is seen as a golden age
She leaves no heir and so the throne passes
to her cousin’s (Mary Queen of Scots) son
James I, King of Scotland
The English Experiment
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King James I (1603-1625) was born a Catholic but raised
a protestant after his mother was imprisoned
His reign is recognized as a continuation of Elizabeth’s
golden age but several problems occur between him and
the nobles of England who do not want parliament’s power
reduced
James I is a big believer in witchcraft and persecutes
Catholics as did Elizabeth however he does grant them
eventually freedom of worship which upsets the English
protestant nobles
James is also a believer in the “Divine Right of Kings” and
tries to get parliament to be obedient to him and publishes
the King James Bible version
James had several problems with parliament but chief
among them was the contest over raising funds for the
crown.
Parliament often refused the amount of money he asked
for and he often dissolved parliament. He ruled from 1614
to 1621 with Parliament dissolved.
James took over Ireland and began planting Protestants in
Ulster, established the first colonies in the US and Canada
The English Experiment
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In 1625 Charles I takes over his father and begins a
long battle with parliament
Charles is also a believer in the Divine Right of Kings
and their is constant trouble with Parliament
He marries a Catholic princess of France which angers
the protestants and he tries to curb the Calvinists and
Puritans who demand reforms
Ultimately the English Civil War (1646-1649) breaks
out and Charles is imprisoned
He is executed in 1649 when he refuses to abdicate the
throne.
Oliver Cromwell, a Calvinist Puritan and leader of the
Parliament forces establishes the “Rule of Parliament”
for the good of the people
From 1649-1651 Cromwell attacks Ireland and Scotland
in a bid to rid it of anti-Commonwealth forces;
massacres Catholic Irish and Scots in particular
In 1653 he denounces the ‘Rump Parliament’ and
declares himself Lord Protector (1658)
He died in 1658 of malaria and was posthumously
executed in 1661 on the anniversary of Charles’
execution
In 1660 Parliament agreed to reinstate the monarchy
and Charles II took the throne
The English Experiment
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Charles II’s reign sees him strengthen the Anglican Church with the
Clarendon Code : Corporation Act 1661, Act of Uniformity 1662,
Conventicle Act 1664 and Five Mile Act 1665.
Charles II is secretly trying to bring England back into the Catholic
fold but Parliament repeals any attempts to allow freedom of
religion or tolerance
Charles married the Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza,
further proof he was pro-Catholic
In 1672 he issues the Royal Declaration of Indulgences which
repeals the Penal Laws against Catholics but Parliament forces him
to take it back
In 1683 the Rye House Plot is revealed where Protestant ministers
were planning to murder Charles and his brother James II after it
was revealed that James was a Catholic
He died in 1685 without an heir and converted to Catholicism on his
deathbed
His brother James II took over and ruled but it was a tense
situation as Parliament had fears that the Monarchy would become
Catholic again
When James produced an heir it was the last straw and Parliament
deposed James and called on the Protestant William of Orange to
become king of England
This was known as the Glorious Revolution (1689) since it was a
bloodless coup
Political Repercussions
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Absolutism will remain a reality of monarchies on the European continent while England will
become a constitutional monarchy
The idea that the people could execute a King sends shockwaves throughout the royal
families of Europe and makes them even more wary of absolutist
Ironically, Crowell’s attempt to create a ‘republic’ ends in him turning it into a dictatorship (he
left his son in charge when he died)
In the colonies, the English experiment with republicanism seeds the notion of the rule of
parliament and all people must be represented in parliament before they can be taxed
Eventually this leads to the American Revolution of 1776 and its eventual independence
France’s King Louis XVI willingly helps defeat Britain by sending money and troops to help
the rebels
The ideas of the American Revolution will find their way back to France and lead to the
French Revolution
Religious tolerance will not be tolerated in England or France but the United States does
institutionalize the notion of freedom of religion
By the late 1600’s, the Roman Catholic Church has been sidelined by the combination of
Humanism, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution and Absolutism