Transcript File

Memory System
Unit-IV
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Unit-4 : Memory System
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Basic concepts (contd..)
Processor
k-bit
address bus
Memory
MAR
n-bit
data bus
MDR
Up to 2k addressable
locations
Word length =n bits
Control lines
( R / W , MFC, etc.)
Recall that the data transfers between a processor and memory involves two
registers MAR and MDR.
If the address bus is k-bits, then the length of MAR is k bits.
If the word length is n-bits, then the length of MDR is n bits.
Control lines include R/W and MFC.
For Read operation R/W = 1 and for Write operation R/W = 0.
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Basic concepts (contd..)
• Measures for the speed of a memory:
– Elapsed time between the initiation of an operation
and the completion of an operation is the memory
access time.
– Minimum time between the initiation of two
successive memory operations is memory cycle time.
• In general, the faster a memory system,
the costlier it is and the smaller it is.
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Basic concepts (contd..)
• An important design issue is to provide a
computer system with as large and fast a
memory as possible, within a given cost
target.
• Several techniques to increase the
effective size and speed of the memory:
– Cache memory (to increase the effective speed).
– Virtual memory (to increase the effective size).
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Semiconductor RAM memories
• Random Access Memory (RAM) memory
unit is a unit where any location can be
addressed in a fixed amount of time,
independent of the location’s address.
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Semiconductor RAM memories
• Internal organization of memory chips:
–
–
–
–
Each memory cell can hold one bit of information.
Memory cells are organized in the form of an array.
One row is one memory word.
All cells of a row are connected to a common line,
known as the “word line”.
– Word line is connected to the address decoder.
– Sense/write circuits are connected to the data
input/output lines of the memory chip.
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Semiconductor RAM memories
Internal organization of memory chips
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7
1
1
0
0
W0
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•
•
FF
A0
A2
Address
decoder
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•
•
A1
W1
FF
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•
•
•
•
•
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•
•
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Memory
cells
A3
•
•
•
W15
Sense / Write
circuit
Data input/output lines: b7
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Sense / Write
circuit
b1
Unit-4 : Memory System
Sense / Write
circuit
R/W
CS
b0
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Semiconductor RAM memories
Internal organization of memory chips
5-bit row
address
W0
W1
32  32
memory cell
array
5-bit
decoder
W31
10-bit
address
Sense/Write
circuitry
32-to-1
output multiplexer
and
input demultiplexer
R/ W
CS
5-bit column
address
Data
input/output
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Semiconductor RAM memories
• Static RAMs (SRAMs):
– Consist of circuits that are capable of retaining their state as
long as the power is applied.
– Volatile memories, because their contents are lost when
power is interrupted.
– Access times of static RAMs are in the range of few
nanoseconds.
– However, the cost is usually high.
• Dynamic RAMs (DRAMs):
– Do not retain their state indefinitely.
– Contents must be periodically refreshed.
– Contents may be refreshed while accessing them for
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Unit-4 : Memory System
reading.
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Static Memories - SRAM
• Contain circuits that retains their state
as long as power is applied
• Implementation
– cross connect two inverters to form a latch
– transistors act as switches that open or close
under the control of the Word Line
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Static Memories - SRAM
• Operation
– Write: Sense/ write circuit places value on line
b and compliment on b’; forces cell into
correct state
– Read: Activate Word Line to close switches
T1 and T2 ; b carries the value of the circuit;
Sense/ write circuit monitors b and b’ and set
out accordingly
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A Static RAM Cell
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CMOS Memory Cell
• Major advantage of very low power
consumption
– current flows only when the cell is being
accessed
– 5 volt and 3.3 volt versions
• Implementation
– transistor pairs forms the inverters
– in state 1, point X is high
• transistors T3 and T6 are on while T4 and T5 are off
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A CMOS Memory Cell
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SRAM Operation
• Transistor arrangement
gives stable logic state
• State 1
– C1 high, C2 low
– T1 T4 off, T2 T3 on
• State 0
– C2 high, C1 low
– T2 T3 off, T1 T4 on
• Address line transistors
T5 T6 form switches
• Write – apply value to B
and complement to B
• Read – value is on line B,
no rewrite required
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feedback
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SRAM - Static RAM
• Bits stored in flip-flop
• No charges to leak
• No refreshing needed when powered - does
not need refresh circuits, does not waste time
refreshing
• More complex cell– more transistors per cell
• Larger per bit
• More expensive
• Faster
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Used for cache memory
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DRAM - Dynamic RAM
• Bits stored as charge in capacitors
• Charges leak in milliseconds
• Need periodic refreshing even when powered –
read, rewrite by CPU
• Need to refresh → ‘dynamic’ RAM
• Simpler construction but need refresh circuits
• Smaller per bit
• Less expensive
• Slower
• Used for main memory
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DRAM Operation
•
•
•
Address line active when bit read or
written
– Transistor switch high – line closed
(current flows)
Write
– Voltage to bit line
• High for 1, low for 0
– Signal (activate) address line
• Transfers charge to capacitor
Read
– Address line selected
• transistor turns on
– Charge from capacitor fed via bit line
to sense amplifier
• Compares with reference value to
determine 0 or 1
– Capacitor charge must now be
restored - rewrite – cycle time!
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WRITE
READ
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Asynchronous DRAM
Internal organization of a Dynamic RAM memory chip
RA S
Row
address
latch
Row
decoder
4096 (512  8)
cell array
CS
A20 - 9  A 8 -
Sense / Write
circuits
0
R/ W
Column
address
latch
Column
decoder
CA S
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Unit-4 : Memory System
•Organized as 4kx4k array.
4096 cells in each row are
divided into 512 groups of 8.
•Each row can store 512 bytes.
12 bits to select a row, and 9
bits to select a group in a row.
•Total of 21 bits.
•Reduce the number of bits by
multiplexing row and column
addresses.
•First apply the row address, RAS
signal latches the row address.
•Then apply the column address,
CAS signal latches the address.
•Timing of the memory unit is
controlled by a specialized unit
which generates RAS and CAS.
•This is asynchronous DRAM.
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Semiconductor RAM memories(contd..)
• Recall the operation of the memory:
– First all the contents of a row are selected based on a
row address.
– Particular byte is selected based on the column
address.
• Suppose if we want to access the consecutive bytes in
the selected row.
• This can be done without having to reselect the row.
– Add a latch at the output of the sense circuits in each
row.
– All the latches are loaded when the row is selected.
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Unit-4 : Memory System
– Different column addresses
can be applied to select 20
and place different bytes on the data lines.
Semiconductor RAM memories(contd..)
• Consecutive sequence of column
addresses can be applied under the
control signal CAS, without reselecting the
row.
– Allows a block of data to be transferred at a much
faster rate than random accesses.
– A small collection/group of bytes is usually referred to
as a block.
• This transfer capability is referred to as the
fast page mode feature.
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Conventional DRAM
Organization
• d x w DRAM:
– dw total bits organized
aschip
d supercells of size
16 x 8 DRAM
cols
w bits
0
2 bits
/
1
2
3
0
addr
1
rows
memory
controller
2
(to CPU)
8 bits
/
supercell
(2,1)
3
data
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Unit-4 : Memory System
internal row buffer
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Reading DRAM Supercell (2,1)
• Step 1(a): Row access strobe (RAS)
selects
rowRow
2. 2 copied from DRAM array to
• Step
1(b):
16 x 8 DRAM chip
row buffer.
cols
0
RAS = 2
2
/
1
2
3
0
addr
1
rows
memory
controller
2
8
/
3
data
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Unit-4 : Memory System
internal row buffer
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Reading DRAM Supercell (2,1)
• Step 2(a): Column access strobe (CAS)
selects
column
1. (2,1) copied from buffer
• Step
2(b):
Supercell
x 8 DRAM chip
to data lines, and16eventually
back to the
cols
0
1
2
3
CPU.
CAS = 1
2
/
addr
To CPU
1
rows
memory
controller
supercell
(2,1)
0
2
8
/
3
data
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supercell
Unit-4 : Memory System
internal row buffer
(2,1)
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Basic DRAM read & write
• Strobe address in two steps
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DRAM READ
Timing
RAS_L
• Every DRAM access begins at:
– Assertion of the RAS_L
– 2 ways to read: early or late v.
DRAM Read Cycle Time
CAS
CAS_L WE_L
A
256K x 8
DRAM
9
OE_L
D
8
RAS_L
CAS_L
A
Row Address
Col Address
Junk
Row Address
Col Address
Junk
WE_L
OE_L
D
High Z
Junk
Read Access
Time
Data Out
High Z
Data Out
Output Enable
Delay
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Unit-4 : MemoryLate
System
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Read Cycle: OE_L asserted after CAS_L
Early Read Cycle: OE_L asserted before CAS_L
Early Read Sequencing
• Assert Row Address
• Assert RAS_L
– Commence read cycle
– Meet Row Addr setup time before RAS/hold
time after RAS
• Assert OE_L
• Assert Col Address
• Assert CAS_L
– Meet Col Addr Unit-4
setup
time before CAS/hold
: Memory System
time after CAS
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Late Read Sequencing
• Assert Row Address
• Assert RAS_L
– Commence read cycle
– Meet Row Addr setup time before RAS/hold
time after RAS
• Assert Col Address
• Assert CAS_L
– Meet Col Addr setup time before CAS/hold
time after CAS
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• Assert OE_L
Unit-4 : Memory System
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