Transcript Memory - HCC Learning Web

Memory


Learning that has persisted over time
Information that has been stored and
can be retrieved.
Memory
•
The Structure of Memory
•
The Nature of Remembering
•
Forgetting
•
Improving Memory
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Informationprocessing
theory
uses computer
science to provide
models to help
psychologists
understand the
processes of
memory.
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Inc. All rights reserved
Process of Remembering

Encoding
• Transforming information into a form that can be
stored in memory

Storage
• The process of keeping or maintaining
information in memory

Retrieval
• Bringing to mind information that has been stored
in memory
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The Process of Remembering
Encoding
Bringing to mind
information stored
in memory
Retrieval
Transforming information
into a form that can be
stored in memory
Storage
Keeping or maintaining
information in memory
The Three Memory Systems
SENSORY
MEMORY
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
LONG-TERM
MEMORY
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Sensory Memory
LO 6.2 What are the characteristics of sensory memory?
SENSORY
MEMORY
• Temporary storage for
sensory information
• Capacity:
– Large
• Duration:
– Visual: fraction of a second
– Auditory: 2 seconds
Short-Term Memory
LO 6.3 What happens to information in short-term memory?
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
“key”
LONG TERM
MEMORY
• Brief storage for
information
currently being used
• Codes information
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according
to sound
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- Letter “T” is
remembered as sound
“tee”
Capacity of Short-Term Memory
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
“key”
• Very
limited
LONG
TERM (about 7 items)
MEMORY
• Displacement: occurs when
short-term memory is filled
to capacity
– Each new, incoming item pushes
outtoan
item which is then
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addexisting
Text
forgotten
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• Chunking:
organizing bits of
information into larger
units
Duration of Short-Term Memory
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
“key”
LONG TERM
• Less
than 30 seconds
MEMORY
without rehearsal
• Rehearsal: the act of
purposely repeating
information to maintain
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it in short-term memory
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Long-Term Memory
LO 6.4 What kinds of information are stored in the subsystems of long-term memory?
• Permanent or relatively
permanent storage
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• Capacity:
Virtually unlimited
• Duration:
From minutes to a lifetime
Three Memory Systems
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Sensory Memory
holds a visual image,
such as a lightening
bolt, for a fraction of a
second –
just long enough for
you to perceive a flow
of movement
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Two Components of Sensory
Memory
•
•
Iconic memory-our eyes register an
exact representation of a scene for a
few tenths of a second.
Echoic memory-fleeting memory for
auditory stimuli that lingers for 3 or
4 seconds.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Codes information according to sound
• The letter “T” is remembered as the sound “tee”
• Also called working memory
• Capacity and Duration
 5-9 items held for less than 30 seconds
without rehearsal
 Displacement
• Event that occurs when short-term memory is filled
to capacity
• Each new, incoming item pushes out an existing
item which is then forgotten

Chunking
• Grouping or organizing bits of information into
larger units
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Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The memory system with virtually unlimited capacity that
contains vast stores of a person’s permanent or relatively
permanent memories
I. Declarative memory
• Stores facts, information, and personal life events
• Can be brought to mind verbally or as images
• Also called explicit memory
Two types:
Episodic memory
Records events as they have been subjectively
experienced
Semantic memory
Stores general knowledge or objective facts and
information.
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Long-Term Memory
II. Nondeclarative Memory
• Stores motor skills, habits, and
simple classically conditioned
responses.
• Also called implicit memory
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Storage- Long Term Memory
Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositionsclassical and
operant
conditioning
effects
How does the brain store our
memories?


Experience modifies the brain’s
neural network; increase activity in a
particular neural pathway
strengthens the interconnections.
Long-term potentiation-prolonged
strengthening of neural firing.
Provides the neural basis for learning
and memory.
Creating New Synaptic Connections Forming new memories involves strengthening
existing synaptic connections and creating new synaptic connections between neurons in
the brain. Neuroscientist Michael Colicos and his colleagues at the University of California–
San Diego (2001) photographed structural changes in a single hippocampus neuron that
occurred in response to repeated electrical stimulation. The spidery blue lines in the photo
are physical changesin the neuron’s structure that represent the first steps toward the
formation of new synaptic connections with other neurons.
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The Limbic System
 Thalamus
• Acts as relay station for
information in and out of
forebrain
 Hypothalamus
• Controls hunger, thirst, and body
temperature; involved in
emotions; helps control the
endocrine system
 Amygdala
• A role in emotional responses to
unpleasant or punishing stimuli
 Hippocampus
• Memory storage, navigation, and
response to new or unexpected
stimuli
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Figure 6.11 Brain Structures Involved in Human Memory Shown here are
some of the key brain structures involved in encoding and storing memories.
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The posterior (rear) hippocampus of an
experienced London taxi driver, shown in red
in the MRI scan on the left, is significantly
larger than the posterior hippocampus of a
research participant who was not a taxi
driver, shown in red in the scan on the right.
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Long-Term Memory
Encoding Deficits
•
The case of Clive Wearing
•
The case of Jill Price
Three Types of Memory Tasks

Recall
• Producing required information by
searching memory
• Retrieval cue
 Any stimulus or bit of
information that aids in retrieval

Recognition
• Identifying material as familiar or
as having been encountered before
• Only requires that you recognize it,
not recall all the information

Relearning
• Retention expressed as the
percentage of time saved when
material is relearned
Serial Position Effect
For information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the
beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the
sequence.

Primacy effect
• Tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more
readily than the middle items

Recency effect
• Tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more
readily than those in the middle


Poorer recall of information in the middle of a series
because it is no longer in short-term memory
Serial position effect supports notion of separate systems
for short- and long-term memory
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Memory Construction and
Distortion
•
•
Memories are not passive, complete
records like photographs or video
recordings; they are constructed and
reconstructed.
Schemas, which represent our
general knowledge and beliefs, can
affect memory at both encoding and
retrieval, assisting memory but
sometimes distorting it.
Memory Construction and
Distortion
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Loftus and Palmer traffic accident
experiment as an example of the
Misinformation effect.
Incorporation of misleading
information into one’s memory of an
event.
Fig. 6-10, p. 228
Which is the Real Photo? The photograph of an unknown young man bravely defying
oncoming tanks in an antigovernment protest in China’s Tiananmen Square has become
an iconic image of individual courage and the global struggle for human rights. But after
people who remembered the original image correctly were shown the doctored image on
the right, their memories changed to incorporate the crowds of onlookers in the fake photo
(Sacchi & others, 2007).
False Memories of a Psychology Professor’s
Office After briefly waiting in the psychology
professor’s office shown below,
participants were taken to another room
and asked to recall details of the office—
the real purpose of the study. Many participants
falsely remembered objects that
were not actually in the office, such as
books, a filing cabinet, a telephone, a
lamp, pens, pencils, and a coffee cup.
Why? The details that the participants
erroneously remembered were all items
that would be consistent with a typical
professor’s office (Brewer & Treyens, 1981).
Schemas can cause memory errors by
prompting us to fill in missing detail with
schema-consistent information (Kleider &
others, 2008).
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Perception
Recall
Picture
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Sound
Retrieving the Memory of a Sensory Experience
Top row: (a) Perceiving a picture activates areas of the
visual cortex. (b) When the memory of the picture is
recalled, it reactivates some of the same areas of the
visual cortex (arrow) that were involved in the initial
perception of the picture. Bottom row: (c) Perceiving a
sound activates areas of the auditory cortex. (d) When
the memory of the sound is recalled, it reactivates some
of the same areas of the auditory cortex (arrow) that
were involved in the initial perception of the sound.
Source: Wheeler & others (2000).
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Eyewitness Testimony

Highly subject to error—should be viewed with caution
• U.S. Department of Justice prepared national guidelines for
collecting eyewitness evidence in 1999
• Minimize errors in the identification of suspects by asking
eyewitness to first describe the perpetrator and then search for
photos to match the description
• Lineup errors are minimized through sequential viewing
 Viewing members of lineup one at a time rather than all
together
• Mistakes are more likely if person is of another race or if a
weapon was used in the crime
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Reconstruction
When people recall an
event, such as a car
accident, they are
actually
reconstructing it
from memory by
piecing together
bits of information
that may or may not
be totally accurate.
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Inc. All rights reserved
Flashbulb/Photographic Memories

An extremely vivid memory of the conditions surrounding
one’s first hearing the news of a surprising, shocking, or
highly emotional event
• News of the death or injury of a family member or friend
• News of a catastrophe

Easily recalled due to high:
• Emotionality
• Consequentiality – importance of the consequences of the event
• Rehearsal – how often people think or talk about events
afterward
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
Eyewitnesses to the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the
Pentagon almost certainly formed flashbulb memories of the
witnessed events.
Do you remember where you were and what you were doing when
you heard the news on September 11, 2001?
Causes of Forgetting

Encoding failure
• Information is not put into long-term memory

Decay theory
• Memories not used will fade with time and
ultimately disappear
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Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting
After memorizing lists of nonsense syllables retentions was measured after
varying intervals of time using the relearning method.
Forgetting was rapid at first (58% after 20 minutes and 44% after 1 hour) then
tapered off.
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Inc. All rights reserved
Causes of Forgetting
•
Retrieval failure
Not remembering something one is
certain of knowing.
“Tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon
Retrieval

Forgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term
memory
Attention
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Encoding
Short-term
Long-term
memory
Retrieval memory
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Causes of Forgetting

Interference
• Information or associations stored hinder the ability to
remember it
• Proactive interference (Forward acting)

Information or experiences already stored hinder memory
• Retroactive interference(Backward acting)

New learning interferes with recall of previous learning
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Motivated Forgetting: motivation
to forget unpleasant, painful,
threatening, or embarrassing memories
Improve Your Memory
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Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or
actively pondering material
Make material personally
meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
• associate with peg wordssomething already stored
• make up story
• chunk-acronyms
Improve Your Memory
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Activate retrieval cues- mentally
recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are
fresh- write down before
interference
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
• rehearse
• determine what you do not yet
know
Improving Memory

Overlearning
• Practicing or studying material beyond the point where it
can be repeated once without error
• People remember material better and longer if they overlearn it
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Mnemonic Device

On Old Olympia’s Towering Tops A
Finn And German Vault And Hop.
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