Transcript Presentation

Making Memories
The Psychological
Process of Memory,
Language, and
Thinking
Cognition (8-10%)
• In this unit students learn how humans convert sensory input into kinds of information.
They examine how humans learn, remember, and retrieve information. This part of the
course also addresses problem solving, language, and creativity. AP students in
psychology should be able to do the following:
• Compare and contrast various cognitive processes:
• effortful versus automatic processing / deep versus shallow processing / focused versus
divided attention.
• Describe and differentiate psychological and physiological systems of memory (e.g.,
short-term memory, procedural memory).
• Outline the principles that underlie effective encoding, storage, and construction of
memories.
• Describe strategies for memory improvement.
• Synthesize how biological, cognitive, and cultural factors converge to facilitate
acquisition, development, and use of language.
• Identify problem-solving strategies as well as factors that influence their effectiveness.
• List the characteristics of creative thought and creative thinkers.
• Identify key contributors in cognitive psychology (e.g., Noam Chomsky, Hermann
Ebbinghaus, Wolfgang Köhler, Elizabeth Loftus, George A. Miller).
Cognition (aka
): the persistence of learning over time
through the storage and retrieval of information
Memory – the basics
LTP
• Memory
serves asaids
the in
basic system for encoding, storing, and
Hippocampus:
Amygdala: responsible
retrieving information
long-term, believed to • Best way to transfer items for
perception of
to Long• be
A true
understanding
of
which
part
of
the
brain
control
this
process
responsible for
emotions
& connection
Term
is
to
study
then
get
the
proper
from
storage
to
retrieval
is
still
incomplete
declarative memory as
of emotion to long-term
amount
of
sleep
as spatial
aids in self• For a well
memory
to stick around it must be transferred to long memory,
term
navigation, Alzheimer's• Once LTP has been achieved
preservation
as
memory
even
patients show damage
emotional
attachment
to
passing
an
electric
current
through
the
• Long-Term
Potential
(LTP):
the
more
a
memory
is
utilized
the
Getting
Getting
to this first
an event helps us react
to
Retaining
moreinfo
potential
neuron
has not erase the memory
will
future events
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
intostrength thatbrain
info back
the
info
• Does
wipe out newly acquired
• Partsthe
of the
brain responsible
for memory
brain
out
The
• Brain
Trauma
like concussions
will
• Getting something to long-term
requires
processing
an
Brain
infinite number of stimuli into
a recognizable
or
also
remove short-term
memories
meaningful pattern called the
Information
Processing
and
LTP
while
long-term
stays
Model
• Hippocampus and amygdalamemories
Memory – Encoding
Phonological
• Encoding is the first of the
three basic parts ofLoop
memory
processing, it is responsible for experiencing and processing stimuli
• Represents the brief store of mostly
• Two basic types of encoding:
acoustic (but also visual) information
• Effortful Processing: done
actively
“with effort”
purpose mechanism
when
paired
withora on
rehearsal
• E.G.: studying for a test
• Occurs in two phases:
• Automatic Processing: done passively “without effort” or by
• Phonological store:
accident
• Infoorenters
acoustically
for
• E.G.: remembering your breakfast
the scorebrain
of last night’s
game
maybe 1-2 seconds
• The ways we encode:
• Held in speech-based form
• Visual: processing visual stimuli into a mental image for storage
• Articulatory control:
• Acoustic: processing auditory stimuli, phonological loop is crucial
• Linked
to speech
production
• Semantic: processing the meaning
of stimuli
& placing
it into context
• We
retain
through
• Memory of facts, ideas, rules,
words,
& general
concepts rehearsal
saying
it out
loud/in our
• When stimuli fail to encode it is (repeating
known as an or
encoding
failure
– in
head
multiple
other words you did not forget but
never
actuallytimes)
remembered
Memory – Storage and Retrieval
• Storage is the second of the three basic parts of memory processing,
it is responsible for where information
stored,
how long the
STM: 0-30issec.
duration,
memory is lasts (duration), capacity
how much7(+/-2),
can be stored
(capacity), and
mainly
what kind of information is heldacoustic encoding
• In terms¼
of-storage
Sensory:
½ sec.there are three stages of memory as proposed in
LTM: unlimited duration
the Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Multi- Store Model of working Memory:
duration,
all sensory
& capacity, encoding
• Sensory Memory
experience
(high / Working (Short-Term) Memory / Long-Term Memory
mainly semantic w/focus
• Most
adults hold
7 (+/-2) items in STM for 0-30 seconds according to
capacity),
different
stores
on acoustic & visual
Miller (what things are represented in 7s?)
for George
each sense
• Can be misleading because of “chunking” information
• Retrieval deals with locating & retrieving information from LTM
• Do we forget or is the memory impeded?
Memory
• STM & LTM store information differently for later retrieval impacting our
ability to retrieve information in any given situation
• STM – Sequentially
• LTM – Association
Coping Strategies
Memory – More Specifics
Episodic:
• In the Sensory Stage Echoic
and Iconic
stages
togetherpieces of info
• Chunking:
grouping
individual
No
actual
way memory
to
events
of
one’s
Most common
allowing us to experience
the
as the
a continuous
stream in
test
/ world
confirm
into
units
children
&decay
fadesExplicit Memory:
life
• IconicImplicit
memoryMemory:
(visual)truth
lasts
about
1/3
of
a
second
before
of
Eidetic
• This allows for STM
that moves
beyond
in adulthood
when
a subject
memory
Procedural:
• Echoic memory
(acoustic) lasts
about
3
seconds
before
decay
unintentional
the 7(+/-2)
intentionally
tries to
Semantic:
While
recognition
&
learned
skills
• Sensory memory has no meaning
attached until
it enters
working
remember
something
•
Remember
as
many
of
the
following
“Eidetikers”
Eidetic
memory
language,
facts,
influence of prior
memory
not
requiring
& in
consciously
is the
medical
display
numbers as you can
experience
general
aware
of doingskills,
so Long
• Working
Memory
(STM) Stage:
conscious
term
for
hyper
exceptional
knowledge • Remember as many of the following
thought
• Anything
thatmemory
has your attention in your conscious state
they also Term
accurate
letters as you can
• Subject to two limitations: limited capacity and short durations recreate memory
1776198514922004
XIBMSATMTVPHDX
LTM:
• Mnemonics:
creating a pattern or
• Coping mechanisms to handle limitations
association
Implicit
• Long Term Memory has •noRehearsal:
limit to duration
or capacity
repeating
out-loud w/cadence
vs.
Types
•Photographic
Engram (aka Memory Trace): the physical
changes that occur in
Do you
the brain associated
with a memory
ofExplicit
LTM
memory
is
really
believed
to beof LTM
• Three types
remember?
mostly
a myth
• General
rule: A memory is implicit if it can affect behavior or mental
processes without becoming fully conscious while explicit memories
always involve consciousness
Memory
Most "eidetic"
feats are the
result of hardwork
Memory – Studies and Psychologists
• George Sperling: demonstrated
the impermanence
of sensory
Hermann
Ebbinghaus
th
encoding by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20 of a second
• Founder of memory research
• Conducted all experiments on himself
• Improved retention rate when told them to focus on specific row
combined with specific tone
(Signal
to Noise discoveries:
Theory)
• Most
famous
Forgetting
ability
George Miller: STM capacity•ofThe
7(+/-2)
seconds,Curve:
chunking
theoryof the
brain to retain info diminishes with time
Alan Baddeley: proposed a more complex, modular model of STM
• Biggest
that characterized it as “Working
Memory”loss in first few days
• The Learning
rate at which you
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart:
proposedCurve:
incoming
learn
newlevels
information
information can be processed at
different
(Deep vs Shallow)
• Plateau isn’t a place of no new
• AKA: Levels of Processing Theory
learning but harder to make
Elizabeth Loftus: research on misinformation effect showing
significant
progresstestimonies
reconstructive distortions show up
often in eyewitness
• Spatial Effect: information over spaced
Hermann Ebbinghaus: first to conduct scientific studies of
intervals
is &learned
retained easier
forgetting, developed the Forgetting
Curve
spacing&
effect
• Most remember only half
•
•
•
•
•
Memory – Retrieval
• Flashbulb Memory: clear memory of an emotionally significant
moment
or event Effect:
Primacy
Recency Effect:
• Retrieval:
process
by which
more
likely
to stored information is recovered from
likely to recall
memoryrecall items at
• Retrieval
clues are important
the beginning
of for activating memory
• The morethe
specific
listyou are the better your ability to recall
items at the end
of a list
• There are multiple ways we retrieve memory
• Context-Dependent Memory: tendency for information to be better
recalled in the same context in which it was originally learned
Serial
Positioning
State-Dependent Memory: tendency for information to be better
• Can also be Mood Dependent
•
recalled in the same “state” (psychologically or physiologically) as when
it was learned
• Serial Positioning Effects: the tendency of recall to be affected
by the order of the encoding
• We tend to recall material at the start or end with greater accuracy
• Let’s test it!
Memory – Retrieval
• The Spacing Effect: tendency for distributed or “spaced out” or
practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through
massed study or “cramming”
• In other words – cramming is minimally effective at best
• Other Factors Impacting Retrieval:
• Encoding Specificity Principle - more closely the retrieval clues match
the way the information was encoded the better the recall
• Mood-Congruent Memory – theory that states we selectively remember
memories that match our current mood
• Depression leads to negative memories and vice versa
• Memories are cued in two primary ways:
• Recall: a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously
presented material
• Ex: essay test / short answer / police sketch
• Recognition: a retrieval method in which one must identify
information that is provided, which has previously been presented
• Ex: Multiple Choice / Police Line-up
Memory – Retrieval Failure or Forgetting (encoding failure)
• We often use the phrase ”I forgot” – but did we really forget?
Bias: influence of
personal beliefs,
• Possible reasons for Retrieval Failure:
attitudes, &
AbsentBlocking:
a
• Retroactive Interference:
new information
blocks
information
experiences
on out oldwhen
memory
cannot
• Ex: getting a new busMindedness:
number & “forgetting”
the old
one
memory
•
Transience-prevents
memory
forgetting due to
be retrieved due
• Proactive
Interference:
old
information
blocks
out
new information
Suggestibility:
overload
lapse in attention
to interference
Persistence: a
process
of
memory
• Ex: calling your new girlfriend by your old girlfriend’s name
memory problem
• Blocking-focus on task at hand
distortion as the
where unwanted
• Amnesiaresult
can also
impact the•ability
to recall or create memories
of a suggestion
Absent-mindedness-ability
to shiftcannot be
memories
(
deliberate or
• Two types
put out of mind
attention
inadvertent)
Misattribution:
Transience:
• NOTE: As memories form, neurotransmitters
collect at the
• Misattribution/bias/suggestibility-to
retrieved memory
memories
decay
synapses, (before absolute threshold
is crossed)
called
memory
associated with
focus
on
meaning
and
not detail
or
fade
in
strength
traces which a sharp blow to the headMemory
or electric shock can
wrong time, place,
•
Persistence-to
remember
especially
over
time
prevent from consolidating, making it hard to recall that information or person
Purpose of the Memory “sins”
•
Memory
“sins”memories
five
one
emotional
Psychologist Daniel Schacter has created a list of seven “sins” or
through
through
reasons memories will not stick around
four
seven
• These sins are not necessarily bad as each
tends to serve a function
within the normal part of human memory
• Crash Course: Remembering and Forgetting
Memory – the Process of Forgetting
• Encoding is
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