Transcript 103-07-HistoryOceanPart2

HISTORY OF OCEANOGRAPHY,
Part 2:
Development of Modern Oceanography
GEOL 1033
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• Shallow areas of high traffic needed depth studies
(sounding refers to determining water depth) & were well-charted
for safety and navigation
• Deep oceans were poorly known until late 1800s
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Some soundings by explorers as early as 1500 (de la Cosa)
James Ross' soundings (early 1800'S)
Little incentive
Hard work = long, wet, heavy ropes + weight
This changed with the Challenger Expedition of 1872-1876!
• Challenger used a steam engine to run a winch &
piano wire replaced rope
• Eventually, the economic incentive came from need to
lay submarine telegraph cables between N A & Europe
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY Challenger Expedition
• John Murray and Charles Thomson conceived this first sailing expedition
devoted entirely to oceanographic science
• They coined the term 'oceanography'
• The 4-year Challenger voyage was a milestone in the history of marine science.
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DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY Challenger Expedition
226' x 36' Sailing ship (2,306 ton corvette), auxiliary steam engine
Several 1 000 m cable covered most of deck
Travelled ~130 000 km- Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic oceans
Enormous biological collections of pelagic & benthic organisms
~5 000 new species discovered by this one expedition!
Proved that life existed in deep ocean.
Dredged seafloor for organisms, rocks, & sediments
Collected data on atmosphere, weather, and physical & chemical
properties of seawater
• Obtained extensive data on bathymetry of the seafloor
• Discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
& the Marianas Trench
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• During next 50 years (late 1800's-early 1900's), many nations
copied Britain with own deep-sea expeditions
– For example, Germany, Russia, Austria, USA, Norway, Denmark
– Motivations included: fisheries, commerce, naval activities, transoceanic
communication cables
– Non-governmental & governmental funding of research
– Some international cooperation developed
– Evolution from descriptive to more quantitative science
– New instruments developed for depth, temperature, salinity
• USA
– Albatross - Pacific Ocean, 1888-1920
– Blake - Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean, 1887-1890, included
• Alex. Agassiz = became a famous biologist
• Chas. Sigsbee = became a famous geologist
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• Norwegian Fram under Nansen studied Arctic, 1893-1898
– Nansen invented a marine water sampling device, now called a Nansen
bottle.
– Fram was a specially engineered wooden ship
• 1.2m-thick hull
• 3 years intentionally frozen and drifted in polar ice
– 5-year voyage firmly established Nansen's ideas that
• No Polar continent
• Arctic Ocean was a major ocean basin.
• German Meteor Expedition (1925-1927)
– Very modern studies of South Atlantic Ocean, including
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Sediment studies
Chemical properties of seawater
Physical properties of seawater
Topography of seafloor
– Initiated continuous echo sounder (PDR) where sound travel time was used
to calculate water depths, so a depth profile established along ship's route.
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• Later major British expeditions:
– Antarctic Ocean and later all ocean deep-sea studies
• Discovery I - 1925-1927
• Discovery II - 1930
• Discovery III - Later 1900's
– Initial incentive was the whale industry
• USA eventually lagged behind world, so established
during the 1920's
– WHOI (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute)
– Scripps Institute of Oceanography at La Jolla, California
(Began as a biological field station in 1912.)
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• An aerial view of Woods Hole (June 1985) showing a
complex of oceanographic research facilities including
– the National Marine Fisheries Service,
– the Marine Biology Laboratory, and
– the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• Aerial view of part of the campus and pier of the Scripps
Oceanographic Institute
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• World War II
– Tremendous increase in interest in oceans by many nations
during & after the war
– Motivations
• Warfare (ship, submarine, mine fields, amphibious activities)
• Advances in technology
• Greater awareness of natural disasters
– Much learned
• Post-war era
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Many international political changes & Cold War began
Stimulated continuous studies of oceans
Government funding of research became very important
Seismic studies of oceanic crust initiated
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) established in
late 1940's at Columbia University in New York
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• Mohole Project (USA)
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Late 1950's to early 1960's
Purpose: drill & core through crust to upper mantle
Thinner crust in ocean basins
Had to develop new technology
• Deep-water drilling
• Ship stability
– Terminated because
• Costs were too high
• Recession of late 1950s
• Led to JOIDES
– Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling
– Cooperative efforts of scientists of different U.S. institutions
• Reduce costs of oceanographic research
• Not waste new technology developed by Mohole Project
• Still do some limited deep-sea upper crustal drilling & sampling
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP)
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Initiated by JOIDES in 1964
Commissioned the Glomar Challenger 1968
Seabed cores totalled 96 km end-to-end
400' long
Sampled bottom sediments, rocks, etc.
Conducted other concurrent studies
Determined Earth's recent long-term climate changes
Confirmed theory of seafloor spreading – major contribution!
• Ocean Margin Drilling Program (OMDP)
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10-year project during the 1980's
Less costly than DSDP
Focussed on N A continental margins (application oriented)
Commissioned a new, more modern ship, the Glomar Explorer
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
• 1960's & 1970's:
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On-board computers revolutionized research at sea
Dangers of marine pollution became widely recognized
Need for broad marine policies and management recognized
Use of satellites for navigation & remote sensing of oceans
• International cooperation & programs increased from late 1950's
– Because of the
• High costs of marine research
• Recession during late 1950's
– International Geophysical Year (IGY)
• 1957-8
• Multi-national efforts
• Included oceanographic research
– International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE)
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1970's
Geochemical, biological, water circulation, & environmental studies
Seabed mineral assessment
Led to GEOSECS
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
– Geochemical Ocean Section Study (GEOSECS)
• Chemical properties of seawater
– Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
• Studied water movements
– Seabed Assessment Program
• Studied mineral & petroleum occurrences in the oceans
– Coastal Upwelling Project
• High biological productivity in 1% of ocean's area
– International Geodynamics Project
• 1970's
• Studied plate tectonics
• led to FAMOUS
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France & USA
Studied Mid-Atlantic Ridge with manned submersibles
Much was see firsthand and much learned about mid-ocean ridge rift valleys
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
– Ocean Drilling Program (ODP)
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1980's outgrowth of OMDP & DSDP
Need to share the growing cost of ocean research
Annual membership fee of $3 million
USA plus other countries: Great Britain, Japan, West Germany,
France, USSR (later dropped out), Canada (1983), & consortia of
smaller nations sharing annual fee
• Canada later dropped to a 3-nation consortia
• New, bigger, better drilling ship built in Canada (JOIDES Resolution)
that can operate in worse weather, drill where hydrocarbons may be
present, and in Arctic ice conditions
• After about 18 years of high-seas research expeditions, ODP is to end
with Leg #210.
Future Deep-Sea Drilling?
• Yes, the “Integrated Ocean Drilling Program” (IODP) will replace
ODP.
• The Resolution may be still used for awhile, but a new, bigger, and
better ship is planned.
• Proposals include drilling for petroleum in deep-water areas.
• 22 nations will contibute $406 million to support the first 5 years
of the program
• Research will include investigation of gas hydrates, climate
dynamics (including the Arctic), continental margins, petroleum
resources, the subsurface biosphere, earthquake phenomena,
mineral deposits associated with the formation of oceanic
lithosphere at mid-ocean ridges
• This is timely for Canada with its young offshore oil and gas
program in Atlantic Canada.
• Canada needs about $31 million to participate during the first 5
years.
Future?
• More international cooperation & cost sharing of basic research,
e. g., IODP
• More industry involvement in basic oceanographic research
• Greater use of manned & unmanned submersibles
• More applied & research uses for remote-controlled vehicles and
cameras - safer
• Greater use of satellites for navigation, remote sensing, weather
prediction, basic research, etc.
• Greater emphasis on applied research: energy, climate, coastal
zones, biological productivity, environmental problems, mineral
& petroleum exploration & exploitation, international laws of the
sea, marine engineering
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