Transcript EOCT Review

EOCT Review
Class Requests by Standard
Macromolecules (SB1)
Polymer
Monomer
Examples
Function
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
(simple sugars)
Sugars & starches
Provide rapid
energy
Proteins
Amino acids
Meats, beans
Structural
components,
enzymes
Lipids
Glycerol + fatty
acids
Fats, oils, waxes
Long-term energy
storage
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides
DNA, RNA
Genetic
information/code
for building
proteins
Organelles (SB1)
Organelle
Function
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of cell, provides ATP
Nucleus
Control center, directs cell activities
Golgi apparatus
Packaging & distribution center of cell
Lysosomes
Breaks things down (“housekeepers”)
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Cellular highway for transporting
materials
Vacuole
Storage center
Cell wall
Extra layer of support/protection for
certain types of cells
Cytoplasm
Jelly-like substance inside cell
Ribosome
Assembles proteins
Chloroplast (in plants and algae only)
Site of photosynthesis
Enzymes (SB1)
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Q: What are they?
A: Biological catalysts.
Q: What does that mean?
A: They speed up reactions in living things.
Q: How do they do that?
A: By lowering the activation energy, which is
the amount of energy needed for a reaction to
start.
Transport Processes (SB1)
Type
Examples
Definition
Active transport
Endocytosis (taking
material in) & exocytosis
(removing material)
Movement of materials
against the concentration
gradient, which requires
energy
Passive transport
Diffusion, osmosis,
facilitated diffusion
Movement of materials
from a region of high to
low concentration (moves
along a concentration
gradient) & doesn’t require
energy
Important Terminology for Cellular
Transport (SB1)
• Diffusion: movement of substances from high
concentration to low concentration
• Osmosis: diffusion of water
• Isotonic: movement of solutes & solvents is equal
• Hypertonic: high concentration of solutes in
comparison to solvents, solvent will move out of
cell, causing it to shrink
• Hypotonic: low concentration of solutes in
comparison to solvents, solvent will move into
cell, causing it to swell (hypo makes the cell grow)
Mendel’s Laws (SB2)
• Law of Dominance states that the dominant
allele will prevent the recessive allele from being
expressed. The recessive allele will appear when
it is paired with another recessive allele in the
offspring.
• Law of Segregation (separation) states that gene
pairs separate when gametes are formed, so each
gamete (sex cell) has only one allele of each pair.
• Law of Independent Assortment states that
different pairs of genes separate independently
of each other when gametes are formed.
Meiosis (SB2)
• Meiosis occurs only in the formation of sex cells.
This process consists of two cell divisions but only
one chromosome replication.
• The first meiotic division produces two cells
containing half the number of double stranded
chromosomes. These are called diploid (2n) cells.
• The second meiotic division results in the
formation of four cells, each containing half the
number of single-stranded chromosomes. These
are called haploid (1n) cells.
DNA vs. RNA (SB2)
Nucleic Acid
Shape/Strands
Sugar
Bases
DNA
Double helix/2
Deoxyribose
A, T, C, G
RNA
Single stranded
Ribose
A, U, C, G
Central Dogma (SB2)
• States that information flows from DNA to RNA to
Protein.
• Processes involved in order: ReplicationTranscription-Translation
• Replication: DNA is being copied
• Transcription: DNA is being changed into mRNA
• Translation: The codes in mRNA are “translated”
to make amino acids that link together to form
proteins
Mutations (SB2)
• Changes in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule are known as gene
mutations. Mutations may cause a change in the protein resulting from
the genetic code for that gene.
• Some mutations are the result of exposure to agents such as ultraviolet
light, ionizing radiation, free radicals, and substances in tobacco products
and other chemical compounds. These agents that harm DNA are called
mutagens.
• Regardless of the cause of the mutation, there are several types of
changes that may result: base-pair substitution, base insertion, and base
deletion.
Mutations (SB2)
• Base pair substitutions occur when one nucleotide base is replaced by
another. This change may lead to the substitution of one amino acid for
another during protein synthesis. An example of this is sickle-cell anemia,
a genetic disorder that has structural and physiological consequences.
• A base insertion mutation is an addition of an extra nucleotide base into
the DNA sequence.
• A base deletion mutation is the removal of a nucleotide base from the
DNA sequence.
• In both base insertion mutations and base deletion mutations, a frame
shift occurs. Remember that the nucleotide sequence is read as a triplet
code. *A deletion or insertion in a gene region will shift this reading frame,
causing an abnormal protein to be synthesized.
• Remember that not all mutations are harmful!
Biotechnology (SB2)
• New DNA technologies have resulted in advances in medicine, forensics,
and agriculture.
• Certain genetic diseases may be cured by reinserting a corrected gene
back into the patient to replace a damaged gene (known as gene therapy).
• Forensic labs use DNA technology to identify people through DNA
fingerprinting. Crime scene evidence such as blood or hair samples can be
used to connect suspects to the crime by looking for DNA sequence
similarities.
• Today, researchers use recombinant DNA technology to analyze genetic
changes. They cut, splice together, and insert modified DNA molecules
from different species into bacteria or other types of cells that rapidly
replicate and divide. The cells copy the foreign DNA right along with their
own DNA. An example of this is the gene for human insulin, which can be
mass produced for diabetics.
Biotechnology (SB2)
• Not only does genetic engineering have applications in medicine and the
environment, it also has uses in industry and agriculture. Sheep and goats
are used in developing treatments for human diseases.
• Scientists today have developed genetically altered bacteria to eat up oil
spills, manufacture alcohol and other chemicals, and process minerals.
• Plant biologists have used DNA technology to produce plants with many
desirable traits. These include increased disease resistance, herbicide
resistance, and increased nutritional content.
Photosynthesis (SB3)
• Plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms are important to the
maintenance and balance of life on Earth. They convert solar energy to
chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates. Photosynthetic organisms
must also break down carbohydrates to form ATP. These carbohydrates are
usually in the form of simple sugars, mainly glucose. The process of
breaking down carbohydrates for ATP is called cellular respiration.
• Autotrophs are organisms that can manufacture their own energyproviding food molecules. Most autotrophic organisms trap energy from
the Sun and use this energy to build carbohydrates in a process known as
photosynthesis. This trapped energy is used to convert the inorganic raw
materials CO2 and H2O to carbohydrates and O2. The key to this process is
the pigment chlorophyll, which is the molecule in the chloroplasts of
plants that absorbs energy from sunlight.
• The general equation for photosynthesis is as follows:
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy from sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Photosynthesis (SB3)
• Two Main Reactions of Photosynthesis:
1. Light reactions – these reactions split water
molecules, providing hydrogen and an energy
source for the Calvin cycle. Oxygen is given off.
2. Calvin cycle – the series of reactions that form
simple sugars using carbon dioxide and hydrogen
from water.
• The light reaction is the photo part of
photosynthesis & takes place in the thylakoids.
• The Calvin cycle is the synthesis part of
photosynthesis & takes place in the stroma.
Cellular Respiration (SB3)
• Organisms get energy from carbohydrates through the
process of cellular respiration to make ATP. However,
the carbohydrates must first be broken down by the
process of glycolysis.
• The general equation for cellular respiration is as
follows:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
• Glycolysis takes place in the cell’s cytoplasm and is an
anaerobic (without oxygen) process. First, glucose
enters a cell by active transport. The glucose is broken
down by enzymes into pyruvic acid. Glycolysis
produces 2 molecules of ATP.
Cellular Respiration (SB3)
• Two Main Reactions of Cellular Respiration:
1. Krebs Cycle – Breaks down the products of
Glycolysis to produce molecules used in the
electron transport chain. Takes place in the
mitochondrial matrix.
2. Electron Transport Chain – Consists of a
series of proteins in the mitochondrial
membranes that convert ADP to ATP by
transferring electrons.
Classification (SB3)
Levels from broadest to most specific:
• Domain (3 exist)
• Kingdom (6 exist)
• Phylum (numerous exist from P-S)
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species
Mnemonic device for remembering the order: Dear King
Phillip Came Over For Grape Soda
Domains (SB3)
• Bacteria: includes kingdom Bacteria aka
Eubacteria
• Archaea: includes kingdom Archaea aka
Archaebacteria
• Eukarya: includes kingdoms Plantae, Animalia,
Protista, Fungi
Kingdom Overviews (SB3)
• Archaebacteria: bacteria found in extreme
environments like hot springs, deep oceans, swamps
• Eubacteria: “true” bacteria, includes bacteria that are
harmful or beneficial
• Plantae: multicellular eukaryotic producers who have
cell walls made of cellulose
• Animalia: multicellular eukaryotic consumers who lack
cell walls
• Protista: unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes that
lack complex systems & live in moist environments
• Fungi: unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic
heterotrophs that act as decomposers
Succession (SB4)
2 main types:
• Primary: is the gradual development of a new
community where no organisms have lived
before. An example is the changes that take place
after a volcanic eruption and the lava flow cools,
hardens, and weathers.
• Secondary: occurs when a natural disaster or
human activity partially destroys a community.
When secondary succession takes place, soil is
already present.
Tropisms (SB4)
What is a tropism?
—a plant’s response to its environment
Examples of Tropisms:
• Geotropism/Gravitropism—a plant’s response to
gravity
• Phototropism—a plant’s response to light
• Thigmotropism—a plant’s response to touch
*Paying attention to the prefixes will help you
understand the tropism.
Cycles (SB4)
• Carbon (C): movement & transformation of carbon, includes processes
such as photosynthesis, cellular respiration, burning of fossil fuels,
decomposition of organisms
• Oxygen (O): involves oxygen being produced from photosynthesis & the
release of CO2 through respiration
• Nitrogen (N): Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is changed into ammonia by
N-fixing bacteria; ammonia becomes ammonium, which gets changed into
nitrates; plants use nitrates to make essential macromolecules;
denitrifying bacteria eventually change nitrates back into N gas, which gets
released into the atmosphere.
• Phosphorous (P): most of this cycle takes place at ground level; phosphate
is released by slow breakdown of rocks; plants take this up through roots;
P moves through food web; and P gets released when dead organisms are
broken down by decomposers
• Hydrologic (water-H2O): circular pathway of water on Earth; involves
precipitation, seepage, evaporation, transpiration and condensation