Chapter 2: Chemistry Level
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Transcript Chapter 2: Chemistry Level
Chemistry Comes Alive
Part A
2
Matter
The “stuff” of the universe
Anything that has mass and takes up space
States of matter
Solid – has definite shape and volume
Liquid – has definite volume, changeable shape
Gas – has changeable shape and volume
Energy
The capacity to do work (put matter into motion)
Types of energy
Kinetic – energy in action
Potential – energy of position; stored (inactive)
energy
Forms of Energy
Chemical – stored in the bonds of chemical
substances
Electrical – results from the movement of charged
particles
Mechanical – directly involved in moving matter
Radiant or electromagnetic – energy traveling in
waves (i.e., visible light, ultraviolet light, and
X rays)
Energy Form Conversions
Energy is easily converted from one form to another
During conversion, some energy is “lost” as heat
Composition of Matter
Elements – unique substances that cannot be broken
down by ordinary chemical means
Atoms – more-or-less identical building blocks for
each element
Atomic symbol – one- or two-letter chemical
shorthand for each element
Properties of Elements
Each element has unique physical and chemical
properties
Physical properties – those detected with our senses
Chemical properties – pertain to the way atoms
interact with one another
Major Elements of the Human Body
Oxygen (O)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)
96% of body matter
Lesser and Trace Elements of the Human Body
Lesser elements make up 3.9% of the body and
include:
Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), magnesium
(Mg), iodine (I), and iron (Fe)
Trace elements make up less than 0.01% of the body
They are required in minute amounts, and are found
as part of enzymes
Atomic Structure
The nucleus consists of neutrons and protons
Neutrons – have no charge and a mass of one
atomic mass unit (amu)
Protons – have a positive charge and a mass of
1 amu
Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus
Electrons – have a negative charge and 1/2000 the
mass of a proton (0 amu)
Models of the Atom
Planetary Model – electrons move around the
nucleus in fixed, circular orbits
Orbital Model – regions around the nucleus in which
electrons are most likely to be found
Models of the Atom
Figure 2.1
Identification of Elements
Atomic number – equal to the number of protons
Mass number – equal to the mass of the protons and
neutrons
Atomic weight – average of the mass numbers of all
isotopes
Isotope – atoms with same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons
Radioisotopes – atoms that undergo spontaneous
decay called radioactivity
Identification of Elements
Figure 2.2
Identification of Elements
Figure 2.3
Molecules and Compounds
Molecule – two or more atoms held together by
chemical bonds
Compound – two or more different kinds of atoms
chemically bonded together
Mixtures and Solutions
Mixtures – two or more components physically
intermixed (not chemically bonded)
Solutions – homogeneous mixtures of components
Solvent – substance present in greatest amount
Solute – substance(s) present in smaller amounts
Concentration of Solutions
Percent, or parts per 100 parts
Molarity, or moles per liter (M)
A mole of an element or compound is equal to its
atomic or molecular weight (sum of atomic weights)
in grams
Colloids and Suspensions
Colloids, or emulsions, are heterogeneous mixtures
whose solutes do not settle out
Example: Jello and Cytosol
Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures with visible
solutes that tend to settle out
Example: Blood
Mixtures Compared with Compounds
No chemical bonding takes place in mixtures
Most mixtures can be separated by physical means
Mixtures can be heterogeneous or homogeneous
Compounds cannot be separated by physical means
All compounds are homogeneous
Chemical Bonds
Electron shells, or energy levels, surround the
nucleus of an atom
Bonds are formed using the electrons in the
outermost energy level
Valence shell – outermost energy level containing
chemically active electrons
Octet rule – except for the first shell which is full
with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner to
have eight electrons in their valence shell
Chemically Inert Elements
Inert elements have their outermost energy level
fully occupied by electrons
Figure 2.4a
Chemically Reactive Elements
Reactive elements
do not have their
outermost energy
level fully occupied
by electrons
Figure 2.4b
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic
Covalent
Hydrogen
Ionic Bonds
Ions are charged atoms resulting from the gain or
loss of electrons
Anions have gained one or more electrons
Cations have lost one or more electrons
Formation of an Ionic Bond
Ionic bonds form between atoms by the transfer of
one or more electrons
Ionic compounds form crystals instead of individual
molecules
Example: NaCl (sodium chloride)
Formation of an Ionic Bond
Figure 2.5a
Formation of an Ionic Bond
Figure 2.5b
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of two or
more electrons
Electron sharing produces molecules
Single Covalent Bonds
Figure 2.6a
Double Covalent Bonds
Figure 2.6b
Triple Covalent Bonds
Figure 2.6c
Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
Electrons shared equally between atoms produce
nonpolar molecules
Unequal sharing of electrons produces polar
molecules
Atoms with six or seven valence shell electrons are
electronegative
Atoms with one or two valence shell electrons are
electropositive
Comparison of Ionic, Polar Covalent, and Nonpolar
Covalent Bonds
Figure 2.8
Hydrogen Bonds
Too weak to bind atoms together
Common in dipoles such as water
Responsible for surface tension in water
Important as intramolecular bonds, giving the
molecule a three-dimensional shape
Hydrogen Bonds
Figure 2.9
Chemical Reactions
Occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged,
or broken
Are written in symbolic form using chemical
equations
Chemical equations contain:
Number and type of reacting substances, and
products produced
Relative amounts of reactants and products
Examples of Chemical Reactions
Patterns of Chemical Reactions
Combination reactions: Synthesis reactions which
always involve bond formation
A + B AB
Decomposition reactions: Molecules are broken
down into smaller molecules
AB A + B
Exchange reactions: Bonds are both made and
broken
AB + C AC + B
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
Reactants losing electrons are electron donors and
are oxidized
Reactants taking up electrons are electron acceptors
and become reduced
Therefore, both decomposition and electron
exchange occur.
Energy Flow in Chemical Reactions
Exergonic reactions – reactions that release energy
Usually when a bond is broken.
Endergonic reactions – reactions whose products
contain more potential energy than did its reactants
Reversibility in Chemical Reactions
All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible
A + B AB
AB A + B
If neither a forward nor reverse reaction is dominant,
chemical equilibrium is reached
Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions
Temperature – chemical reactions proceed quicker at
higher temperatures
Particle size – the smaller the particle the faster the
chemical reaction
Concentration – higher reacting particle
concentrations produce faster reactions
Catalysts – increase the rate of a reaction without
being chemically changed
Enzymes – biological catalysts
Chemistry Comes Alive:
Biochemistry
Part B
2
Biochemistry
Inorganic compounds
Do not contain carbon
Water, salts, and many acids and bases
Organic compounds
Contain carbon, are covalently bonded, and are
often large
Inorganic: Water
High heat capacity – absorbs and releases large
amounts of heat before changing temperature
High heat of vaporization – changing from a liquid to
a gas requires large amounts of heat
Polar solvent properties – dissolves ionic substances,
forms hydration layers around large charged
molecules, and serves as the body’s major transport
medium
Inorganic: Water
Reactivity – is an important part of hydrolysis and
dehydration synthesis reactions
Cushioning – resilient cushion around certain body
organs
Inorganic: Salts
Inorganic compounds
Contain cations other than H+ and anions other than
OH–
Are electrolytes; they conduct electrical currents
Inorganic: Acids and Bases
Acids release H+ and are therefore proton donors
HCl H+ + Cl –
Bases release OH– and are proton acceptors
NaOH Na+ + OH–
Inorganic: Acid-Base Concentration (pH)
Acidic solutions have higher H+ concentration and
therefore a lower pH
Alkaline solutions have lower H+ concentration and
therefore a higher pH
Neutral solutions have equal H+ and OH–
concentrations
Inorganic: Acid-Base Concentration (pH)
Acidic: pH 0–6.99
Basic: pH 7.01–14
Neutral: pH 7.00
Figure 2.12
Inorganic: Buffers
Systems that resist abrupt and large swings in the pH
of body fluids
Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly releasing
bicarbonate ions and protons
The chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid
and bicarbonate resists pH changes in the blood
Organic Compounds
Molecules unique to living systems contain carbon
and hence are organic compounds
They include:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Organic: Carbohydrates
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Their major function is to supply a source of cellular
food
Examples:
Monosaccharides or simple sugars
Figure 2.13a
Organic: Carbohydrates
Disaccharides or double sugars
Figure 2.13b
Organic: Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides or polymers of simple sugars
Figure 2.13c
Organic: Lipids
Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of oxygen
in lipids is less than in carbohydrates
Examples:
Neutral fats or triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eicosanoids
Organic: Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol
molecule
Figure 2.14a
Organic: Other Lipids
Phospholipids – modified triglycerides with two
fatty acid groups and a phosphorus group
Figure 2.14b
Organic: Other Lipids
Steroids – flat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings
Eicosanoids – 20-carbon fatty acids found in cell membranes
Figure 2.14c
Organic: Representative Lipids Found in the Body
Neutral fats – found in subcutaneous tissue and around
organs
Phospholipids – chief component of cell membranes
Steroids – cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex
hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
Fat-soluble vitamins – vitamins A, E, and K
Eicosanoids – prostaglandins, leukotriens, and
thromboxanes
Lipoproteins – transport fatty acids and cholesterol in
the bloodstream
Organic: Amino Acids
Building blocks of protein, containing an amino
group and a carboxyl group
Amino acid structure
Organic: Amino Acids
Figure 2.15a-c
Organic: Amino Acids
Figure 2.15d, e
Organic: Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
Figure 2.16
Organic: Structural Levels of Proteins
Primary – amino acid sequence
Secondary – alpha helices or beta pleated sheets
Organic: Structural Levels of Proteins
Tertiary – superimposed folding of secondary
structures
Quaternary – polypeptide chains linked together in a
specific manner
Organic: Structural Levels of Proteins
Figure 2.17a-c
Organic: Structural Levels of Proteins
Figure 2.17d, e
Organic: Fibrous and Globular Proteins
Fibrous proteins
Extended and strandlike proteins
Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain
contractile fibers
Globular proteins
Compact, spherical proteins with tertiary and
quaternary structures
Examples: antibodies, hormones, and enzymes
Organic: Protein Denuaturation
Reversible
unfolding of
proteins due to
drops in pH
and/or increased
temperature
Figure 2.18a
Organic: Protein Denuaturation
Irreversibly denatured proteins cannot refold and
are formed by extreme pH or temperature changes
Figure 2.18b
Organic: Molecular Chaperones (Chaperonins)
Help other proteins to achieve their functional threedimensional shape
Maintain folding integrity
Assist in translocation of proteins across membranes
Promote the breakdown of damaged or denatured
proteins
Organic: Characteristics of Enzymes
Most are globular proteins that act as biological
catalysts
Holoenzymes consist of an apoenzyme (protein) and
a cofactor (usually an ion)
Enzymes are chemically specific
Frequently named for the type of reaction they
catalyze
Enzyme names usually end in -ase
Lower activation energy
Organic: Characteristics of Enzymes
Figure 2.19
Organic: Mechanism of Enzyme Action
Enzyme binds with substrate
Product is formed at a lower activation energy
Product is released
Organic: Mechanism of Enzyme Action
Active site
Amino acids
1
Enzyme (E)
Substrates (s)
H20
Enzymesubstrate
complex (E–S)
2
Free enzyme (E)
3
Peptide bond
Internal rearrangements
leading to catalysis
Dipeptide product (P)
Figure 2.20
Organic: Nucleic Acids
Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and phosphorus
Their structural unit, the nucleotide, is composed of
N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate
group
Five nitrogen bases contribute to nucleotide
structure – adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
thymine (T), and uracil (U)
Two major classes – DNA and RNA
Organic: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Double-stranded helical molecule found in the
nucleus of the cell
Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring
genetic continuity
Provides instructions for protein synthesis
Organic: Structure of DNA
Figure 2.21a
Organic: Structure of DNA
Figure 2.21b
Organic: Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Single-stranded molecule found in both the nucleus
and the cytoplasm of a cell
Uses the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine
Three varieties of RNA: messenger RNA, transfer
RNA, and ribosomal RNA
Organic: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Source of immediately usable energy for the cell
Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with three
phosphate groups
Organic: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Figure 2.22
Organic: How ATP Drives Cellular Work
Figure 2.23