Transcript Pärnu arengukonverents

Arengu-uuringud
3. Ühiskonna areng
Mati Heidmets
2013 sügissemester
Ühiskonna areng
• Kas 21 sajandi Eesti on arenenum kui 19 sajandi Eesti? Kas
Euroopa aastal 2008 on arenenum kui Euroopa aastal 1898?
• Mis on arenenud ühiskonna tunnused?
• Ühiskond – sarnaste tunnustega (keel, kultuur, mälu, territoorium …)
inimeste vaheline püsiv suhtevõrgustik, mida toetavad ühised
institutsioonid (õigusemõistmine, korratagamine, kirik, riigivõim …)
ning mille kaudu ühiskonnaliikmed ennast määratlevad
• Jaotus arenenud maailmaks ja arenguriikideks? Kust pärit, kellele
vajalik?
• Arengutelg - valdav viis kategoriseerida ja hoiakuid kujundada
Arengusuuna otsingud
• Tõdemus: inimühiskond oma ajaloo jooksul pidevalt
muutunud (kohanenud sise- ja väliskeskkonnale)
• Kas on olemas ühtne muutuste suund, kuidas seda
defineerida, kuidas hinnata?
• Teaduslikus kontekstis defineerida püütud alates 19 saj
keskpaigast, tõukeks darwinism, evolutsionism,
arenguparadigma
• Järgnev: lühipilk arengusuuna otsingutele alates 19 saj
lõpust + tänased arenguhindajad, lähenemised,
andmebaasid
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Auguste Comte: areng = inimese (inimkonna) tarkus
mõista looduses toimuvat. Liikumissuund - hirmult
ja müütidelt arusaamisele ja loodusjõudude
ärakasutamisele
Auguste Comte, known as father of sociology, formulated the law of three
stages human development progresses from the theological stage, in
which nature was mythically conceived and man sought the explanation of
natural phenomena from supernatural beings, through metaphysical stage
in which nature was conceived of as a result of obscure forces and man
sought the explanation of natural phenomena from them until the final
positive stage in which all abstract and obscure forces are discarded, and
natural phenomena are explained by their constant relationship. This
progress is forced through the development of human mind, and increasing
application of thought, reasoning and logic to the understanding of the world
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Herbert Spencer: liikumine jõuühiskonnast huviühiskonna
suunas. Tsentraliseeritud allutamiselt vabatahtliku koostöö ja
iseenese vaoshoidmiseni. Sotsiaaldarvinist, olelusvõitlus
ühiskonnas, mõnu vs valu, arengu eesmärk - perfektsionism
•
•
Herbert Spencer, who believed that society was evolving toward increasing
freedom for individuals, differentiated between two phases of development,
focusing on the type of internal regulation within societies. Thus he differentiated
between military and industrial societies. The earlier, more primitive military society
has a goal of conquest and defence, is centralised, economically self-sufficient,
collectivistic, puts the good of a group over the good of an individual, uses
compulsion, force and repression, rewards loyalty, obedience and discipline.
The industrial society has a goal of production and trade, is decentralised,
interconnected with other societies via economic relations, achieves its goals through
voluntary cooperation and individual self-restraint, treats the good of individual as the
highest value, regulates the social life via voluntary relations, values initiative,
independence and innovation
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
• Emile Durkheim: liikumine mehhaaniliselt, jõuga kooshoitavalt
ja seetõttu repressiivselt ühiskonnalt indiviidikeskse,
spetsialiseerunud ja tööjaotusel baseeruva nn orgaanilise
ühiskonna suunas
•
Emile Durkheim, another of the "fathers" of sociology, has developed a dichotomal
view of social progress. His key concept was social solidarity, as he defined the
social evolution in terms of progressing from mechanical solidarity to organic
solidarity. In mechanical solidarity, people are self-sufficient, there is little
integration and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society
together. In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated and interdependent
and specialisation and cooperation is extensive. Progress from mechanical to organic
solidarity is based first on population growth and increasing population density,
second on increasing "morality density" (development of more complex social
interactions) and thirdly, on the increasing specialisation in workplace. To Durkheim,
the most important factor in the social progress is the division of labour.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936)
• Tönnies: liikumine reguleerimata, mitteformaalsest
(kaootilisest) ühiskonnast normistatud ja standardiseeritud
ühiskonna suunas (vrdl N.Elias!)
•
Ferdinand Tönnies describes the evolution as the development from informal
society, where people have many liberties and there are few laws and obligations, to
modern, formal rational society, dominated by traditions and laws and are restricted
from acting as they wish. He also notes that there is a tendency of standardisation
and unification, when all smaller societies are absorbed into the single, large,
modern society. Thus Tönnies can be said to describe part of the process known
today as the globalization. Tönnies was also one of the first sociologists to claim that
the evolution of society is not necessarily going in the right direction, that the social
progress is not perfect, and it can even be called a regress as the newer, more
evolved societies are obtained only after paying a high cost, resulting in decreasing
satisfaction of individuals making up that society.
Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936)
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Maw Weber:
liikumine karismaatiliselt ja traditsiooniliselt
domineerimistüübilt ratsionaalse domineerimistüübi
suunas
Max Weber’s theory of tripartite classification of authority can be viewed as an
evolutionary theory as well. Weber distinguishes three ideal types of political
leadership, domination, and authority: charismatic domination (familial
and religious), traditional domination (patriarchs, patrimonalism,
feudalism) and legal (rational) domination (modern law and state,
bureaucracy). He also notes that legal domination is the most advanced,
and that societies evolve from having mostly traditional and charismatic
authorities to mostly rational and legal ones.
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Lev Gumiljov (1912-1992)
• Ühiskonna (etnose) elukaar ja elutsüklid. Arengutee?!
• Etnost kooshoidev jõud – passionaarsus. Samastumine,
ühishuvi kõrgemaleseadmine, ohvrimeelsus. Võime ja
soov ennast ohverdada illusiooni eest!
• Etnose elutsükkel ca 1200 aastat, läbib 6 staadiumit
• Passionaarne tõuge, dünaamiline kujunemisprotsess,
passionaarsuse langus, etnilise inertsi faas,
lagunemisfaas, mälestustefaas
• Passionaarsus – looduslik nähtus
Lev Gumiljov (1912-1992)
S.Huntington: tsivilisatsiooniline vaade
• .
Civilizations
7-9 tsivilisatsioonilist rühmitust. Pinged nende vahel. Areng = võistlus ja
konkurents
The definition, nomenclature, and even the number of civilizations are somewhat
ambiguous in Huntington's works. Civilizations may consist of states and social
groups (such as ethnic and religious minorities). Predominant religion seems to be
the main criterion of his classification, but in some cases geographical proximity and
linguistic similarity are important as well. Using various studies of history, Huntington
divided the world into the "major" civilizations in his thesis as such:
Western civilization, centered on Western Europe (particularly the European Union) and
North America, but also including other European-derived countries such as Australia
and New Zealand. Huntington also includes the Pacific Islands, East Timor,
Suriname, French Guiana, and northern and central Philippines.
The Orthodox world of Armenia, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Moldova,
Montenegro, Republic of Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine
Latin America. May be considered a part of Western civilization, though it has slightly
distinct social and political structures from Europe and North America.
The Muslim world of Central Asia, North Africa, Southwest Asia, Afghanistan, Albania,
Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, Pakistan, Somalia,
Mindanao, and parts of India, Russia and the Balkans.
Civilizations
Hindu civilization, located chiefly in India, Nepal, and culturally adhered to by the global
Non-resident Indians and People of Indian Origin, the diaspora.
The Sinic civilization of China, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam. This group also
includes the Chinese diaspora, especially in relation to Southeast Asia.
Japan, considered a hybrid of Chinese civilization and older Altaic patterns.
The civilization of Sub-Saharan Africa is considered as a possible 8th civilization by
Huntington.
The Buddhist areas of Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Arunachal Pradesh, Kalmykia, parts of Nepal, parts of Siberia, and the
Tibetan government-in-exile are identified as separate from other civilizations, but
Huntington believes that they do not constitute a major civilization in the sense of
international affairs.
Instead of belonging to one of the "major" civilizations, Ethiopia, Haiti, and Turkey are
labeled as "Lone" countries. Israel could be considered a unique state with its own
civilization, Huntington writes, but one which is extremely similar to the West.
In some cases, the Sinic, Hindu, Buddhist and Japonic civilizations are merged into a
single civilization called Eastern World.
Trendid
Pinged tsivilisatsioonide piiridel!
Huntington argues that the trends of global conflict after the end of the Cold War are
increasingly appearing at these civilizational divisions. Wars such as those following
the break up of Yugoslavia, in Chechnya, and between India and Pakistan were cited
as evidence of inter-civilizational conflict.
Trend – Lääs kaotab võimsust!
Huntington identifies a major shift of economic, military, and political power from the West
to the other civilizations of the world, most significantly to what he identifies as the
two "challenger civilizations", Sinic and Islam.
Lääne väärtused pole universaalsed!
Huntington also argues that the widespread Western belief in the universality of the
West's values and political systems is naïve and that continued insistence on
democratization and such "universal" norms will only further antagonize other
civilizations. Huntington sees the West as reluctant to accept this because it built the
international system, wrote its laws, and gave it substance in the form of the United
Nations. In Huntington's view, East Asian Sinic civilization is culturally asserting itself
and its values relative to the West due to its rapid economic growth. Specifically, he
believes that China's goals are to reassert itself as the regional hegemon, and that
other countries in the region will 'bandwagon' with China due to the history of
hierarchical command structures implicit in the Confucian Sinic civilization, as
opposed to the individualism and pluralism valued in the West.
Erisused
Läänelikust mudelist erinev moderniseerumine – Jaapan, Venemaa!
Those who consider the Clash of Civilizations thesis accurate often point to the example of Japan,
claiming that it is not a Western state at its core. They argue that it adopted much Western
technology (also inventing much technology of its own in recent times), parliamentary democracy,
and free enterprise, but has remained culturally very distinct from the West.
Perhaps the ultimate example of non-Western modernization is Russia, the core state of the Orthodox
civilization. The variant of this argument that uses Russia as an example relies on the acceptance
of a unique non-Western civilization headed by an Orthodox state such as Russia or perhaps an
Eastern European country. Huntington argues that Russia is primarily a non-Western state
although he seems to agree that it shares a considerable amount of cultural ancestry with the
modern West.
Rebenenud maad!
"Huntington refers to countries that are seeking to affiliate with another civilization as "torn
countries –Turkey, whose political leadership has systematically tried to Westernize the country
since the 1920s, is his chief example. Turkey's history, culture, and traditions are derived from
Islamic civilization, but Turkey's Western-oriented elite imposed western institutions and dress,
embraced the Latin alphabet, joined NATO, and is seeking to join the European Union. Mexico
and Russia are also considered to be torn by Huntington.
According to Huntington, a torn country must meet three requirements in order to redefine its
civilizational identity. Its political and economic elite must support the move. Second, the public
must be willing to accept the redefinition. Third, the elites of the civilization that the torn
country is trying to join must accept the country.
Samuel Huntington (1927-2008)
Mõtteliinid hargnenud ...
Sotsiobioloogia: paralleelselt toimunud bioloogiline ja
sotsiokultuuriline evolutsioon
Sociobiologists have argued for a dual inheritance theory, which posits that humans are
products of both biological evolution and sociocultural evolution, each subject to
their own selective mechanisms and forms of transmission (i.e. in the case of biology,
genes, and cultural evolutionary units are often called memes).
Tsivilisatsiooniteoreetikud: väline kontroll sisemiseks sunniks
Valikuvabaduse apologeedid: individuaalsed valikud vs väline
surve
Varia. Current political theories of the new tribalists consciously mimic ecology and the
life-ways of indigenous peoples, argumenting them with modern sciences.
Ecoregional Democracy attempts to confine the "shifting groups", or tribes, within
"more or less clear boundaries" that a society inherits from the surrounding ecology,
to the borders of a naturally occurring ecoregion.
... ja pilt kirju
Postindustrialiseerumine: tehnokraatia ja pragmatism,
teenindusmajandus, IT-domineerimine, uus hierarhia (spetsialistid)
In 1974 Daniel Bell, author of The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, introduced the concept of
postindustrial society. Like many more classical evolutionists, he divided the history of humanity
into three eras: pre-industrial, industrial and postindustrial. He predicted that by the end of the
20th century, United States, Japan and Western Europe would reach the postindustrial stage.
A.Toffler: põllumajandusrevolutsioon (10 000 a tagasi), industriaalrevolutsioon (19 saj),
postindustriaalne revolutsioon (20 saj II pool). Sisu – võimukeskuste ümberpaiknemine – jõud –
raha –teadmine.
Moderniseerumine : tehnoloogiline areng + institutsiooniehitus +
ratsionaalne ühiskonnakorraldus
Theories of modernization have been developed and popularized in 1950s and 1960s and are
closely related to the dependency theory and development theory. Western countries are the
most developed, and rest of the world (mostly former colonies) are on the earlier stages of
development, and will eventually reach the same level as the Western world.
Postmoderniseerumine: relativistlik, paljusubjektne, ilma suurte
narratiivideta, arenguteema ei huvita
Arenguskeptikud: Rooma Klubi, ressursside ammendumine,
kliimasoojenemine …
Kokkuvõtteks: ajaloos on liikumissuuna
otsingutel enam rõhutamist leidnud …
• Inimestevaheliste suhete tüüp: indiviid vs kooslus, jõud vs
kokkulepe, reegel vs suhted
• Suhted looduskeskkonnaga: hirm vs teadmine, domineerimine vs
kaitsmine, tänased huvid vs tulevikuhuvid
• Tehnoloogiline areng: tehnoloogia, institutsiooniehitus, ratsionaalne
ühiskonnakorraldus, elukvaliteet,
Trend: süvenev spetsialiseerumine arengukäsitlustes ja
arenguhindamises. Eraldi majandusareng, vabaduse laienemine,
inimareng, tervis, haridus, korruptsioon …
19 sajandi lõpu ja 20 saj esimese poole “suure pildi” asemele palju
väikeseid. Suur (arengu)narratiiv pudenenud paljudeks väikesteks
jutukesteks. Vaikne eeldus – ideaal on olemas nn arenenud lääne
kujul, teised vaja järele tuua (F.Fukuyama!)
Tänased arengusuuna otsijad: ÜRO ja
Amartya Kumar Sen
Amartya Kumar Sen (1933)
Professor at Harvard University, an Indian economist, philosopher, and a winner of
the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998, "for his contributions to welfare
economics" for his work on famine, human development theory, welfare economics,
the underlying mechanisms of poverty, and political liberalism.
Sen's revolutionary contribution to development economics and social indicators is the
concept of 'capability' developed in his article "Equality of What."
Positiivne vabadus – olla ja teha!
His capabilities approach focuses on positive freedom, a person's actual ability to
be or do something, rather than on negative freedom approaches, which are
common in economics and simply focuses on non-interference.
He emphasizes functional capabilities ("substantial freedoms", such as the ability to live
to old age, engage in economic transactions, or participate in political activities);
these are construed in terms of the substantive freedoms people have reason to
value, instead of utility (happiness, desire-fulfilment or choice) or access to
resources (income, commodities, assets).
Poverty is understood as capability-deprivation.
Võimekuse konstrukt
Hinnata tuleb mitte ressursse (kõigil on palju raha) ega
ka seisundit (kõik on õnnelikud), vaid “võimekust”
inimväärselt elada. Viimane sisaldab nii indiviidi
“võimeid” (oskus maailma mõista, tundeid läbi
elada, suhelda …) + ühiskonnapoolset toetust
nende realiseerimisele. Ühiskonna ja riigi ülesanne –
inimese võimekuste suurendamine
It is noteworthy that the emphasis is not only on how human beings actually function
but on their having the capability, which is a practical choice, to function in
important ways if they so wish. Someone could be deprived of such capabilities in
many ways, e.g. by ignorance, government oppression, lack of financial resources, or
false consciousness.
This approach to human well-being emphasises the importance of freedom of choice,
individual heterogeneity and the multi-dimensional nature of welfare.
Capability: võimalus + võimekus. Inimene ja (sotsiaalne) keskkond
kui terviklikult arenev süsteem.
10 võimekust
1980date lõpus pakub Sen välja nn 10 võimekust, mis on inimese
ja ühiskonna arengu aluseks. Arenguideaal!
This approach contrasts with a common view that sees development purely in
terms of GNP growth, and poverty purely as income-deprivation. It has been
highly influential in development policy where it has shaped the evolution of
the human development index HDI has been much discussed in philosophy
and is increasingly influential in a range of social sciences.
1-Life. Being able to live to the end of a human life of normal length; not dying
prematurely, or before one's life is so reduced as to be not worth living.
2-Bodily Health. Being able to have good health, including reproductive health;
to be adequately nourished; to have adequate shelter.
3-Bodily Integrity. Being able to move freely from place to place; to be secure
against violent assault, including sexual assault and domestic violence;
having opportunities for sexual satisfaction and for choice in matters of
reproduction.
10 võimekust
4-Senses, Imagination, and Thought. Being able to use the senses, to
imagine, think, and reason-- and to do these things in a "truly human" way,
a way informed and cultivated by an adequate education, including, but by
no means limited to, literacy and basic mathematical and scientific training.
Being able to use imagination and thought in connection with experiencing
and producing works and events of one's own choice, religious, literary,
musical, and so forth. Being able to use one's mind in ways protected by
guarantees of freedom of expression with respect to both political and
artistic speech, and freedom of religious exercise. Being able to have
pleasurable experiences and to avoid non-beneficial pain.
5-Emotions. Being able to have attachments to things and people outside
ourselves; to love those who love and care for us, to grieve at their
absence; in general, to love, to grieve, to experience longing, gratitude, and
justified anger. Not having one's emotional development blighted by fear
and anxiety. (Supporting this capability means supporting forms of human
association that can be shown to be crucial in their development.)
6-Practical Reason. Being able to form a conception of the good and to
engage in critical reflection about the planning of one's life. (This entails
protection for the liberty of conscience and religious observance.)
10 võimekust
7-Affiliation. Being able to live with and toward others, to recognize and show concern
for other human beings, to engage in various forms of social interaction; to be able to
imagine the situation of another. (Protecting this capability means protecting
institutions that constitute and nourish such forms of affiliation, and also protecting
the freedom of assembly and political speech.) Having the social bases of selfrespect and non-humiliation; being able to be treated as a dignified being whose
worth is equal to that of others. This entails provisions of non-discrimination on the
basis of race, sex, sexual orientation, ethnicity, caste, religion, national origin and
species.
8-Other Species. Being able to live with concern for and in relation to animals, plants,
and the world of nature.
9-Play. Being able to laugh, to play, to enjoy recreational activities.
10-Control over one's Environment. Political. Being able to participated effectively in
political choices that govern one's life; having the right of political participation,
protections of free speech and association. Material. Being able to hold property
(both land and movable goods), and having property rights on an equal basis with
others; having the right to seek employment on an equal basis with others; having the
freedom from unwarranted search and seizure. In work, being able to work as a
human being, exercising practical reason and entering into meaningful relationships
of mutual recognition with other workers.
Amartya Kumar Sen
.
Sen’i käsitlus kujundanud ÜRO
arengualast tegevust
Ühinenud Rahvaste Organisatsioon, asutatud 1945, 192 liikmesriiki.
Keskne ülesanne: arenguhindamine ja arengutoetamine.
Organisatsioonide võrgustik üle 200 ÜRO-ga seotud organisatsiooni
The UN is involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation
of the Millennium Development Goals. The UN Development
Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant
technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the World
Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS. The World Bank Group and
International Monetary Fund (IMF), for example, are independent,
specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework,
according to a 1947 agreement.
Keskne idee – arengul palju dimensioone ja mõõtmeid.
Palju olulisi võimekusi, mida tuleb arendada!
UNDP
•
•
ÜRO Arenguprogramm UNDP: http://www.undp.org/ - kõige mastaapsem
arenguinstrument maailmas
UNDP tegevussuunad/alaprogrammid: :
–
–
–
–
•
•
•
•
poverty reduction and achievement of the MDGs;
democratic governance;
crisis prevention and recovery;
environment and sustainable development
UNDP analüütiline tegevus: Inimarengu aruanded: http://hdr.undp.org/en/
2007/2008 globaalne Inimarengu aruanne: Fighting climate change: Human
solidarity in a divided world
Nii globaalsed, regionaalsed kui rahvuslikud HDR-d saadaval:
http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/
Muud publikatsioonid: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/publications/
UNDP arengupildistamine: Inimarengu aruanded
HDR: teemad
2011/12
Rising South
2007/2008: Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a divided world
2006:
Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis
2005:
International cooperation at a crossroads: Aid, trade and security in an unequal world
2004:
Cultural Liberty in Today's Diverse World
2003:
Millennium Development Goals: A compact among nations to end human poverty
2002:
Deepening democracy in a fragmented world
2001:
Making new technologies work for human development
2000:
Human rights and human development
1999:
Globalization with a Human Face
Mõõtmisinstrumendid
The Human Development Index (HDI)
measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human
development: a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living.
The Human poverty index (HPI-1and HPI-2)
Human poverty is primarily a denial of choices and opportunities for living a life one has reason to
value. Lack of income is therefore far too narrow to serve as a holistic indicator. As a result, a
broader measure was devised in order to capture the many—but not exhaustive—dimensions of
human poverty. The HPI-1—human poverty index for developing countries—measures human
deprivation in the same aspects of human development as the HDI and the HPI-2—human
poverty index for developed countries—includes, in addition to the three dimensions in HPI-1,
social exclusion.
The Gender Related Development Index (GDI)
is a composite index that measures human development in the same dimensions as the HDI while
adjusting for gender inequality in those basic dimensions.
The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)
is a composite indicator that captures gender inequality in three key areas: the extent
of women's political participation and decision-making, economic participation and
decision making-power and the power exerted by women over economic resources.
Tugev fookus soolisele võrdsusele!
Inimarengu indeks (HDI)
HDI: oodatav eluiga + kirjaoskuse tase + haridustase + SKT
inimese kohta
The Human Development Index (HDI) is an index combining
normalized measures of life expectancy, literacy, educational
attainment, and GDP per capita for countries worldwide. It is claimed
as a standard means of measuring human development — a
concept that, according to the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP), refers to the process of widening the options of persons,
giving them greater opportunities for education, health care, income,
employment, etc.
Tulemus: jaotus arenenud maailmaks, arengumaadeks ja madala
inimarenguga riikideks
The basic use of HDI is to rank countries by level of "human
development", which usually also implies to determine whether a
country is a developed, developing or underdeveloped country.
Human Development Index
Gender Inequality Index
Tulemus: paljumõõtmeline
arengukäsitlus
• Järjest suurenev hulk (arengu)redeleid, mida
mööda rahvad ja riigid üles ronivad
• Rikkus ja demokraatia, rahumeelsus ja
innovaatilisus, tervis ja turvalisus, osalemine ja
sallivus, rahulolu ja õnnetunne ....
• Igal oma konstrukt ja põhjendus, mõõtjad ja
kriitikud.
• Meie – pilk arengumõõdikute maailma. Sealt
materjali ka oma arenguanalüüsiks.