Transcript Unit 8 - Cities _ Urban Land Use Review

CITIES & URBAN LAND US
AP HUG
MAIN IDEAS:
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Urbanization
Location of industry & Urban land use models
Megacities
Poverty/Deprivation
Sustainability
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
• How and why are the different social, economic, and
ethnic groups distributed within an urban area?
• How does gentrification impact various residents
within a community differently?
• Should capitalism be considered a driver of slum
formation? Explain your reasoning.
URBANIZATION
Patterns in urbanization
The Process of Urbanization
• Urbanization: the process by which an
increasing percentage of a country’s
population comes to live in towns and cities. It
may involve both rural-urban migration and
natural increase.
Causes of urbanization
1. Rural to urban migration
2. Natural Increase
Rural – urban migration
• Rural to urban migration – result of push and pull factors
Push factors
Pull factors
Difficult/harsh climate – eg. droughts
Chance of a better life
Struggle to provide food for family
Better housing and amenities
Very low income
Chance of good jobs – higher wages,
more varied employment
High rates of population growth have put
pressure on natural resources such as
water/energy/land
Better medical/health care
Can’t afford to fertilizers to increase yields Children able to go to school
Mechanization of farming favors rich
farmer and leads to unemployment or
underemployment of poor farmer.
Natural increase
• The people that migrate into towns and cities tend to be
young resulting in high levels of natural increase
• high % of young adults = high levels of births
• Falling death rates due to improved medical care means more
babies are born than people dying, further increasing the
urban population
World Urban Population
Urban Processes can be seen as inward
and outward movements
Inward Movement (Centripetal)
Rural to urban migration, gentrification,
re-urbanization, urban renewal
Outward Movement (Centrifugal)
Suburbanization, urban sprawl, counterurbanization
Centripetal Movements involve the
migration of people into towns and
cities
The Consequences of Urbanization
• Economic Growth:
– Urban economies are
almost always more
productive than rural
ones
– Industrial productivity is
higher in cities.
– Cities are usually
responsible for a greater
percentage of total GDP
The Consequences of Urbanization
• Gentrification
– The Reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas.
– Improvement in residential areas
– It is a type of filtering that may lead to the social
displacement of poor people (as a place becomes
gentrified, housing prices rise and the poor are
unable to afford it– often times minorities)
The Consequences of Urbanization
– Re-urbanization: (urban
renewal) the development of
activities to increase residential
population densities within the
existing built-up area of a city.
– This may include the
redevelopment of vacant land
and the refurbishment of
housing and the development
of new businesses.
Centrifugal Movements
• Also known as Decentralization
• The outward movements of a population from
the center of a city towards its edge or
periphery, resulting in the expansion of a city.
Centrifugal Movements
• Suburbanization: the outward growth of towns and
cities to engulf surrounding villages and rural areas.
This may result from the out-migration of population
from the inner urban areas to the suburbs.
• Urban sprawl: The unplanned and uncontrolled
physical expansion of an urban area into the
surrounding countryside (example: Mexico City)
• Exurbanization: process in the 1990s when upper class
city dwellers moved out of the city, beyond the
suburbs, to live in high-end housing in the countryside.
• Counter-urbanization: process involving the
movement of populations away from inner urban areas
to a new town, new estate, commuter town or village
on the edge or just beyond the city limits or ruralurban fringe.
Reasons for counter-urbanization
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Increased car ownership
Increased wealth
De-industrialization
Relocation of industry/employment to rural urban
fringe
• Desire for safe, pleasant environment, the rural
ideal/utopia
• Perception of urban areas as dangerous, high
levels of crime, racial/ethnic problems – ‘white
flight’
• Change in tenure from public/renting to private
ownership. Sell property and move out.
The Consequences of Centrifugal
Movements
• Centrifugal movements involve a shift of
population and economic activity from the
center of the urban area to its periphery and
beyond, which is detrimental to the center.
• Construction of roads and buildings destroy
open space and increases air pollution
LAND USE MODELS
The Formal and Informal Economies
• Urban economies may be classified as formal
or informal.
• Both types exist together and universally
• Informal economies employ approximately
60% of the Urban population in South America
and Asia and more than 70% in Africa.
• Formal Economy
– Qualifications and
training required
– Set hours of work and
pay
– Job security and legal
protection
– Pensions and
unemployment benefits
– Well-serviced and built
premises
– High technology
• Examples
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Bank clerk
Teacher
Plumber
Lawyer
Police officer
• Informal Economy
– No qualifications or
training required
– Unregulated hours and
pay
– No job security, no legal
protection
– No pensions, no job
protection
– Small premises,
sometimes domestic
– Labor intensive
– Barter of cash transfers
– Some illegal business
• Examples:
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Fruit vendor
Rickshaw puller
Barber
Taxi driver
Waste-picker
The advantages of the Informal Economy
• Has provided many semi-skilled migrants with immediate work
• The informal economy plays a vital role in the developing urban
economies of many low and middle income countries
• In Angola, setting up a legal business takes 13 procedures, 124
days and 500% of the average income of an Angolan
• In the US, it takes 5 procedures, 5 days, and .7% of the average
income of an American
• Informal economy makes a large contribution to urban wealth
• Informal and formal are interdependent. Goods produced in
informal are often sold to formal.
Disadvantages of the Informal Economy
• Some illegal activities: drugs, prostitution,
corruption, bribery, smuggling.
• Turns away potential visitors- lowers image
• Health and safety risks for workers
The Central Business District
• The CBD: the commercial and economic core
of a city
• The heart of the city
• the area most accessible to public transport
• the location with the highest land values.
Urban Land Use Models
• Burgess Model
• Hoyt Model
• Multiple Nuclei Model
Burgess Model: Concentric Zone
Model
Inner
city
Suburbs
Evaluation: For
• If taken as a very broad pattern, then a large
number of towns and cities follow the pattern
identified by Burgess.
• It is good model because it is simple and easy to
understand.
• Burgess could not have foreseen the changes in
transport routes or society yet his model is still
relevant when identifying the reasons behind the
urban morphology of a city.
• It helps us to understand the process involved in
the growth of a city.
Evaluation: Against
• It does not take any physical features into account.
Burgess' own case study - Chicago - does not follow
the pattern because it is on the coast! The growth of
any city will be influenced by the physical geography
of the area.
• Transport is much more readily available allowing
more people to commute Burgess could not have
foreseen this.
• Urban renewal and gentrification has meant that
some of the most expensive property can now be
found in traditional 'low class' areas.
Hoyt
Explanation
• Hoyt's model came nearly twenty years after Burgess’ (late 1930s)
• It was based on 142 American cities.
• He proposed his model after the introduction of public
transportation.
• He suggested that the city grew in a series of sectors or 'wedges'.
• An industrial sector would remain industrial as the zone would have
a common advantage - perhaps a railway line or river.
• Note how the low quality housing is next to the industrial zone,
middle class next to low class and high class as far as possible from
industry and low class.
Evaluation: For
• Some cities seem to follow Hoyt's sectors.
• It provides us with an alternative set of
explanations to Burgess.
• Communication routes (Rivers, roads,
railways) do often provide a very definite
boundary to a sector/land-use.
Evaluation: Against
• Like Burgess, there is no reference to out of
town developments.
– ie: commuter towns which developed after the car
became popular
• Like Burgess, there is no reference to the
physical environment.
Multiple Nuclei Model
Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei
Theory
• 1945
• As an urban area grows, it
develops around a number of
different business centres or
nuclei.
Multiple Nuclei Theory
• Assumptions;
• Modern cities more complex than suggested
by other theorists
• Each nucleus acts as a growth point
• Growth occurs outwards from each nucleus,
until they all merge into one large urban
area
Evaluations For
• Mixture of Burgess and Hoyt
• Shows some land-uses attract more of the
same, for example industrial areas
• Some land-uses may deter others from locating
nearby, eg; housing is usually located away
from industrial areas
Evaluations Against
• Not an exact fit for all cities and
towns
• Too complex
MEGACITIES
What are Megacities?
• Megacities are large metropolitan areas of
10 million inhabitants or more.
• By 2050, 7 out of 10 people will live in
megacities
Megacity Demographics
• The world's megacities take up just 2% of the
Earth's land surface, yet they account for roughly
75% of industrial wood
use, 60% of human water use, and nearly 80% of
all human produced carbon emissions.
• These figures suggest that the struggle to achieve
an environmentally sustainable economy for
the 21st century will be won or lost in the
world's urban areas.
The Opportunities of a Megacity
• Megacities are vibrant centers of economic
activity, social interaction and creativity.
• Hubs in the global network of economic
activities such as trade.
• Megacities bring together people and
resources and are able to generate huge
amounts of wealth.
Challenges of Megacities
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High population concentration and density
Uncontrolled spatial expansion
Severe infrastructural deficits
Inadequate water supply and sewage
Signs of ecological strain and overload
Poor housing provision
Increasing disparity between rich and poor
POVERTY /
DEPRIVATION
Residential Patterns in Rich Countries
• Residential Segregation: the physical
separation of population by culture, income
or other criteria.
– Common in all cities
– Intensity depends on the differences between
the guest and hosts.
The Causes of Residential Segregation
Are:
• Socioeconomic
Status
• Ethnicity
Redlining
• Redlining is the practice of
denying, or charging more for,
services such as banking,
insurance, access to health care,
or even supermarkets, or
denying jobs to residents. Is
often racially determined areas.
• During the heyday of redlining,
the areas most frequently
discriminated against were black
inner city neighborhoods. For
example, in Atlanta in the 1980s,
banks would often lend to lowerincome whites but not to middleor upper-income blacks.
Blockbusting
• Blockbusting was a business
practice of U.S. real estate
agents and building
developers meant to
encourage white property
owners to sell their houses at
a loss, by implying that racial
minorities were moving into
their previously racially
segregated neighborhood,
thus depressing real estate
property values.
Blockbusting Tactics
• The tactics included:
– hiring black women to be seen pushing baby carriages in
white neighborhoods
– selling white neighborhood houses to black families
– and afterwards placing real estate agent business cards in
the neighbors’ mailboxes; and saturating the
neighborhood area with fliers offering quick-cash for
houses.
– building developers bought houses and dwelling buildings,
and left them unoccupied to make the neighborhood
appear abandoned — like a ghetto or a slum —
psychological manipulation that usually frightened the
remaining white residents into selling at a loss.
Racial Steering
• Racial steering refers to the practice in which
real estate brokers guide prospective home
buyers towards or away from certain
neighborhoods based on their race.
• Racial steering is often divided into two broad
classes of conduct:
– Advising customers to purchase homes in
particular neighborhoods on the basis of race
– Failing, on the basis of race, to show, or to inform
buyers of homes that meet their specifications
Deprivation
• Within most cities, there is considerable
variation in quality of life.
• “Poor” Areas are zones of deprivation,
poverty and exclusion.
• MEDCs: inner-city areas/ghettos
• LEDCs: Shanty towns/slums
Measuring Deprivation
• Indices Used to Measure Deprivation:
– Physical Indicators: quality of housing, levels of
pollution, incidence of crime, vandalism, graffiti
– Social Indicators: Crime (or fear of) levels of and
access to health, standards of education.
– Economic Indicators: access to employment,
unemployment, underemployment, levels of
income
– Political Indicators: opportunities to vote
Squatter Settlements
Residential areas which have developed without legal claims to
the land and/or permission from the concerned authorities to
build; as a result of their illegal or semi-legal status,
infrastructure and services are usually inadequate.
30% of the urban population of the world live in squatter
settlements. 1 billion people! By 2050 it will be 2 billion!
This animation shows how squatter settlements are
upgraded over time.
http://www.sln.org.uk/geography/geoweb/blowmedown/shanty05.swf
Slum Living
• Positive Aspects
– Points of Assimilation for
Immigrants
– Informal entrepreneurs
can work here
– Informal employment at
home (no commute)
– Strong sense of kinship
(family support)
– Crime rates are relatively
low.
• Negative Aspects
– Security of tenure is often
lacking
– Basic services are absent
(water and sanitation)
– Overcrowding
– Sites are often hazardous
– Levels of hygiene and
sanitation are poor and
disease is common.
SUSTAINABILITY
The Rogers Model of City System
• The Rogers Model was created in 1997
• It compares a Sustainable City (Circular
Model) with an unsustainable one (Linear
Model)
• In the sustainable city, inputs and outputs are
smaller and there is more recycling.
The Sustainable City
• Sustainable City or “Eco-City” is a city
designed to have minimal environmental
impact. It meets the needs of the present
without compromising the needs of future
generations.
How to Achieve Sustainability
• The following steps need to be taken to
achieve sustainability:
– Improve Economic Security
– Meet Social, Cultural and Health Needs
– Minimize the use of Non-Renewable Resources
– Use finite renewable resources sustainably
– Preserve Green Space
Improve Economic Security
• People should have
access to
employment and
an adequate
livelihood
• If they are ill,
retired, disabled or
unemployed they
should be entitled
to economic
security.
Meet Social, Cultural and Health Needs
• Housing should be healthy,
safe, secure, affordable and
within a neighborhood that
provides piped water,
drainage, sanitation,
transport, healthcare,
education and child welfare.
• The home and workplace
should be free from hazards
and chemical pollution
Minimize the Use of Non-Renewable
Resources
• Reducing consumption of
fossil fuels in housing,
commerce, industry and
transport
• Substituting renewable
resources where possible.
• Public transportation
should be promoted.
Use finite renewable resources sustainably
• Use only enough
water that is needed
• Waste minimization
and recycling should
be encouraged
• People should be
aware of the
ecological footprint.
Preserve Green Space
• “The Green Agenda”
involves providing and
maintaining green space
such as parks.
• It also means reusing
existing urban sites or
brownfield sites
FRQ PRACTICE