Transcript File - Ryan M. Denney, Ph.D.

Theories of Human
Development
Ryan M. Denney, Ph.D.
The University of Southern Mississippi
Basic Overview
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People develop at different rates
Development is relatively orderly (emphasis
on “relatively”)
Development occurs gradually
People have strengths & weaknesses in
different areas of development (e.g.,
cognitive vs. physical vs. social)
Human development is an ineffable
combination of both nature & nurture
Three Domains
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Biological
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Cognitive
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Growth and change to a person’s body
Genetic, health, nutritional factors
Mental processes, knowledge acquisition
Psychosocial
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Emotions, temperament, social skills,
psychosocial interactions
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Piagetian Perspective on Cognitive
Development
New
experiences
Assimilation
Observations
of reality
Accommodation
Disequilibrium
Knowledge/
Schemas
Equilibrium
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor
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Infancy – 2 years of age
Experience environment through the
senses
Develop object permanence
Goal directed actions
Move from physical exploration of the world
to symbolic exploration (e.g., pointing,
words)
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Stages of Cognitive Development:
Preoperational
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Ages 2 – 7
Operations = mental symbols or cognitive manipulations
(PRE-operational)
Solve problems through trial and error
Developmental Limitations:
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Lack of reversible thinking
Egocentric thinking
No conservation of matter (next slide)
Centration (narrow focus on one characteristic-excluding
others)
Animism
Transductive reasoning (transformation of environmental
stimuli into neurochemical info: if A causes B today, then
A will cause B tomorrow.
Appearance as reality (assuming an object is what it
appears to be; e.g., smile=happy or plastic pizza
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Stages of Cognitive Development:
Concrete Operational
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Ages 7-11
Mental operations applied to concrete objects/
events
Developmental Accomplishments:
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Mastery of conservation of matter
Classification
Seriation (ordering things)
Reversibility
Decentration (moves beyond focusing on one salient
aspect of an object or situation; e.g., length vs. number of
objects)
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Formal Operations
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Emerges Ages 11-15;
Abstract thought
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Systematic problem-solving
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Symbolic thought: concrete objects can
symbolize abstract concepts. Like what?
Algebra and geometry, morality/ethics, literature,
future possibilities
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
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Culture
Determines what & how child will learn
about the world
Development occurs between people (in
relationships and relational systems)
Social interaction  understanding/
knowledge acquisition
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
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Language
Tool for organizing thinking
3 kinds of speech:
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External/ social speech (you, we, they)
Egocentric speech (I, me)
Inner/ private speech
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Leads to self-regulation
Chomsky's language acquisition device
Transmission of Cultural Norms
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Modeling (driving)
Direct instruction
Collaboration
Assisted learning
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Scaffolding
Independent learning
Zone of Proximal Development
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Discrepancy between
success experienced
independently and
success with
assistance
Scaffolding: gauging/
altering the amount of
assistance given to
match the learner’s
needs.
Examples?
ZPD cont’d
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Not static
Varies for each child and for each different area of
development (bio, cog, and social)
Implications:
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How education is structured
How assistance is provided
How children are assessed
What is considered developmentally appropriate
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Trust vs. Mistrust
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Birth-1 year
Task: Form secure relationship with caregiver.
Trust: optimism, warmth
Mistrust: sense of deprivation
Attentive caregiver vs. Harsh handling or
treatment
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
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1-3 years
Task: Form a healthy sense of independence
Autonomy: self-control, adequacy
Shame: sense of inner failure or inherent
badness
reasonable free choice permitted vs. Harsh
punishment, restrained too much
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Initiative vs. Guilt
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3-6 years (preschool)
Task: Navigation of the social world
Initiative: ability to direct own actions
Guilt: anxiety about being bad
Support for new ideas, sense of responsibility vs.
Too much self control demanded
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Industry vs. Inferiority
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6-11 (elementary)
Task: Mastery of knowledge acquisition and
intellectual skills
Industry: skill competence
Inferiority: sense of inadequacy (comparative
shame)
Sense of accomplishment vs. Feelings of
incompetence
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Identity vs. Identity Confusion
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Adolescence
Task: Identity formation (Who am I? What is my
place in society? What are my values?)
Identity: Image of self as unique and acceptable
Identity Confusion: doubt about identity or
acceptability of the self
Exploration of several roles (selves), self-chosen
path vs. Forced identity from parents
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Intimacy vs. Isolation
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Early Adulthood
Task: Forming intimate relationships (NOT
necessarily sexual)
Intimacy: emotionally close relationships formed
Isolation: emotional and psychological distance
from others
Intimate, close relationships; positive relational
experiences vs. Relational disappointments, fear
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Generativity vs. Stagnation
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Middle Adulthood
Task: Contribute to the lives of others, invest in
younger generations
Generativity: concern for future generations
Stagnation: self-concern (inability to overcome
egocentrism)
Productive work, successful child-rearing, caring
for others vs. Absence of meaningful
accomplishments or contributions
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
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Integrity vs. Despair
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Late Adulthood
Task: Sense that life was worth living
Integrity: satisfaction with own life cycle
Despair: nonacceptance of life cycle
Positive resolution of earlier stages, purposefilled life vs. Negative experiences in earlier
stages, purposeless life, unressolved regret
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC
APPROACH
The Zeitgeist: Victorian Era marked by sexual
repression, rationality, and the virtues of
ethical conduct
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
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Explains personality,
motivation, and
psychological disorders by
focusing on:
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the influence of early
childhood experiences
unconscious motives and
conflicts
methods people use to
cope with their sexual
(libidinal) and aggressive
impulses
Freud’s unconscious
determinism
Sigmond Freud
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
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Personality Structure
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Id
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Ego
Unconscious mind
Operates on the
pleasure principle
Demands immediate
gratification
Superego
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Conscious mind
Internalized ideals
about appropriate bx
Develops from early
experiences
Influenced by
guilt/shame
Superego
Id
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
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Personality Structure
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Ego
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Ego
Largely conscious
Mediates demands of id
and superego
Reality principle
 Satisfy id in
realistic/moral ways
that bring pleasure
and not pain
Conscious mind
Unconscious min
Superego
Id
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
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Defense Mechanisms
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Unconscious reactions that protect the self from
uncomfortable, intrapsychic anxiety
Distortions of reality
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Repression-pushing from awareness
Projection-own thoughts/feelings attributed to another
person
Displacement-directing negative emotions at nonthreatening
target
Reaction formation-acting the opposite of how one feels
Regression-reverting to a previous developmental phase
Sublimation-channeling impulses into acceptable actions
Identification-taking on others’ characteristics
Rationalization-using reason to form anxiety reducing
excuses
Intellectualization—Handling negative emotions/anxiety
indirectly through overanalyzing and using abstract thought
Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Stage
Focus
Oral
(0-18 months)
Pleasure centers on the mouth-sucking, biting, chewing
Anal
(18-36 months)
Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder
elimination; coping with demands for
control
Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with
incestuous sexual feelings
Phallic
(3-6 years)
Latency
(6 to puberty)
Dormant sexual feelings
Genital
(puberty on)
Maturation of sexual interests
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychosexual Stages of Development
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Oral Stage
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Birth – 1 year
Gratification through the mouth: chewing, biting, sucking
Important experience: Feeding
Needs not met  obsessive habits (smoking, nail-biting,
thumb-sucking, etc)
Anal Stage
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1 to 3 years
Gratification through the anus; exercise of anal functions
relieves tension
Important experience: Potty training
Needs not met  excessively clean and orderly OR
messy/disorderly
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychosexual Stages of Development
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Phallic Stage
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3 to 6 years
Gratification through the genitals
Important Experience: Sexual desire for opposite
sex parent and Identification with same sex
parent
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Oedipal conflict: Boy likes mom + fears dad = identify
w/ dad
Girl attached to dad, envies penis (electra complex),
identifies with mom to appeal to dad/a male in future
Development of gender identity and role expectations
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychosexual Stages of Development
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Latency Stage
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6 years to puberty
Sexual instincts lie repressed/dormant
Important experience: Social/intellectual
development
Genital Stage
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Post-puberty
Sexual drive sought to be gratified outside family
Important experience: Mature love/Intimacy and
sexual experiences
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
“What is moral is what you feel good after, and what
is immoral is what you feel bad after.”
~Ernest Hemmingway
The Philosophy of Morality
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What is morality?
How do we know that something is morally “wrong?”
Where does it come from?
Who sets its standards?
How is it different from
 ethics?
 religious beliefs?
 Cultural values?
 Good and evil?
How is it similar?
Can moral standards change over time? Does this
mean “right and wrong” can change?
Piaget’s Theory of
Moral Development
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Understanding comes from exposure to the
environment and experiences
Developed the theory through observation
& interview
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how children understand rules to games
understanding of lying, stealing, etc.
Two stage theory
Heteromony (5-10 years)
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Strict adherence to rules and duties
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Rules are fixed & handed down by authority
Obedience to authority
Results from:
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Concrete thought processes
Moral realism - rules are permanent and
unchangeable
Immanent justice - punishment automatically
happens
Lack of social power
Autonomy (10 +)
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Perspective-taking
Ability to consider rules critically
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Reciprocity
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Flexibility
Golden Rule
Adolescence brings an explosion of
autonomous behavior/thinking, thus moral
development is strongly impacted
Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development
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Reasoning valued over conclusions
Morality is based on one’s understanding of
basic principles
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justice, rights, equality, and human welfare
Six stages, 3 levels
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fundamental shift in thinking from external to
internal
The Heinz Dilemma
Heinz’s wife is dying of a special kind of
cancer. The drug that can save her is only
sold in one place. The drug is expensive to
make ($200 per bottle), and the druggist is
selling the drug for much more ($2,000 per
bottle). Heinz borrowed as much money as
he could and only has $1,000. Heinz
pleaded, but the druggist would not reduce
the price. Heinz broke into the drug store and
stole the medicine for his wife.
See “Stages of
Moral Development” Chart