Transcript Ch10Send - University of Windsor

Erratum
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No paper required in this course
anymore.
Each MD is worth 25%
Development over the early
years
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Cognitive development
Moral development
Developmental Psychology
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Developmental psychologists study
lifelong—often age-related—
processes of change.
Issues in Developmental Psychology
(LOBJ 10.1)
 Nature or Nurture
 Genes or environment?
 Stability versus Change
 Inherited traits that continue or constantly
changing?
 Continuity versus Discontinuity
 Are you just more of the same or completely
different?
Research Designs
(LOBJ 10.3)
 In a cross-sectional design, individuals of
different ages are compared at the same
time to see how they differ
 Quick, cheap
 Can’t control for extraneous variables
(income, nutrition, disease)
 Groups may have had different “cohort”
experiences (war)
Research Designs- 2
 In a longitudinal design, the same group is
studied at specific ages
 You get great data
 Expensive and time consuming
 Lose subjects
 Test / retest effect
 May have to stop study because of findings
 Is change due to development of world
experiences?
Physical Development
 Developmental events that occur before
birth are referred to as prenatal
 Those that occur in the month after
birth are neonatal
From Conception to the First
Year
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Agents that cross the placenta
The infant’s world
Attachment
How critical are the early years?
Teratogens
 Teratogens are substances that can
produce birth defects during the
prenatal period
Agents That Cross The
Placenta
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German measles (Rubella)
X-rays, other radiation, toxic chemicals
Sexually transmitted diseases
Cigarette smoking
Alcohol
Drugs other than alcohol
Diseases other than rubella
Effects of alcohol on the fetus
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FAS
FAE
ARBD
Specific effects
Prevalence, Incidence (each year, 350
new cases)
Costs
Iatrogenic effects
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Define Iatrogenic
Anesthetic agents
NSAIDs (non-steroidal antiinflammatories)
The Infant’s World
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Physical abilities
Social skills
Culture and maturation
Newborn reflexes
 Infants are born with innate
primary reflexes
 Physicians use the presence or absence of
primary reflexes to assess neurological status
at birth
Physical Abilities
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Newborn Reflexes
 Rooting
 Sucking
 Swallowing
 Moro (“startle”)
 Babinski
 Grasp
 Stepping
Social Skills
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Babies will turn their heads towards a
face at 9 minutes old.
Synchrony
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First conversations involve babies
exchanging nonverbal signals with others
in a rhythmic pattern.
Culture and Maturation
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Many aspects of development depend
on cultural customs.
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Examples include an infant’s ability to sleep
alone.
Recommendation to have babies sleep on
their back has affected onset of crawling.
As a result, many babies now skip
crawling.
Attachment
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Contact comfort
Separation and security
What causes insecure attachment?
Attachment
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Attachment
 a strong emotional tie a person feels
toward special people in his or her life
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Contact Comfort
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In primates, the innate pleasure derived
from close physical contact; it is the basis
of the infant’s first attachment.
Bonding
 is a process of emotional attachment
hypothesized to occur between parents
and infants soon after birth
Attachment in Infants
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John Bowlby was one of the first
modern psychologists to study
attachment
Bowlby argued that an emotional tie to
the caregiver evolved because it
promotes survival
Separation Anxiety and
Attachment
 By 7 or 8 months of age,
separation
anxiety may develop in an infant
 This is a fear response in which the
infant protests the departure of the
caregiver
 The strange situation technique, used
to study attachment, capitalizes on
separation anxiety
Attachment Styles
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Secure Attachment Type B
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Insecure Ambivalent Attachment Type C
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A parent-infant relationship in which the baby clings to the
parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger to reunion.
Insecure Avoidant Attachment Type A
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A parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when
the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by
reunion.
A parent-infant relationship in which the baby clings to the
parent, cries at separation, and reacts with apathy to reunion.
Disorganized Type D
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‘Atypical' incoherent, contradictory behavior in the presence of
the caregiver as if their behavioral strategy collapsed under the
stress of the Strange Situation.
Types of Attachment
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About 60% of children show secure
attachment
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About 20% show avoidant attachment
About 15% are resistant
About 5% are disoriented
Other Aspects of Attachment
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Time spent with babies promotes secure
attachment
“Secure” babies have caregivers who are
affectionate and especially responsive
Some researchers argue that secure
attachment makes cognitive and social
development smoother
Temperament
 Temperament refers to long-lasting
individual differences in disposition, the
intensity and quality of emotional
reactions
 A major study of temperament is the
New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS)
performed by Thomas and Chess
The NYLS
 The study found four types of infants
easy child (40% of children)
 The slow-to-warm-up child (15%)
 The difficult child (10%)
 The unique child (35%)
 The
Inhibition
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Kagan found that extremely inhibited
(shy) 2- and 3-year-olds tended to
remain so for four or more years
Biological factors may play a role in
shyness and temperament
The Attachment Theory of
Love
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Like infants have attachment styles to
their caregivers, adults have attachment
styles to their partners.
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Secure or rarely jealous or worried about
being abandoned.
Avoidant or distrustful and avoids intimate
attachments.
Anxious ambivalent or agitated and worried
that partner will leave.
Adult style is related to infant style.
Thinking
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According to Piaget, cognitive
development consists of mental
adaptations to new observations and
experiences.
Piaget’s Central Concepts
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A schema is an organized way of
interacting with the environment and
experiencing the world
Schemata guide thoughts based on
prior experiences
Adaptation- Piaget
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Adaptation takes two forms:
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Assimilation or absorbing new information
into existing cognitive structures.
Accommodation or modifying existing
cognitive structures in response to
experience and new information.
previously developed mental structures
and behaviors (schemata) are modified to
adapt them to new experiences
Piaget’s Stages of
Development
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Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth 2yrs)
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Coordinates sensory information with
bodily movements.
Newborns are dependent, reflexive
organisms
At 2 to 3 months, infants develop
memory for past events
Sensorimotor Stage
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Major accomplishment is object
permanence (around 9 months of age).
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The understanding that an object
continues to exist even when you cannot
see or touch it.
Sensorimotor stage
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In the second half of the sensorimotor
stage, children begin to use language to
represent the world
Preoperational Stage (2yrs – 6
or7yrs)
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In this stage, children represent reality
through symbolic thought
Focused on limitations of children’s thinking.
 Children at this age could not reason.
 Children were missing operations
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Mental actions that are cognitively reversible.
Preoperational Child
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Children cannot grasp the concept of
conservation.
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Understanding that physical properties of
objects can remain the same even when their
form changes.
Preoperational Child
Children were egocentric.
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Seeing the world from only your point of view;
the inability to take someone else’s perspective.
Stages of Development
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Animistic thinking is the attribution of intentions to
objects or events
At the end of the preoperational stage, the child has
moved away from centration, a self-oriented view,
failing to recognize the view of others
Concrete Operations Stage (6 or
7 – 11 or 12 yrs)
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Children’s thinking is still grounded
in concrete experiences and
concepts but they can now
understand conservation,
reversibility and cause and effect.
Formal Operations Stage (12 yrs
through adulthood)
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Teenagers are capable of abstract and
deductive reasoning:
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Understanding that ideas can be compared
and classified.
Reasoning about situations not personally
experienced.
Thinking about the future.
Searching systematically for solutions to
problems.
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
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Stage changes are neither as clear-cut
nor as sweeping as Piaget believed.
Children sometimes understand more
than Piaget believed.
Preschoolers are not as egocentric as
Piaget thought.
Cognitive development depends on the
child’s education and culture
Piaget overestimated the cognitive skills
of many adults.
Vygotsky’s Theory
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Emphasized the sociocultural influences on children’s
cognitive development.
 Child develops mental representations of the world
through culture and language.
 Adults play a major role in development through
guidance and teaching.
 Once children acquire language they use private
speech, talking aloud to themselves to direct their
own behaviour, which later become internalized
and silent.
Moral Development
 From childhood on, individuals develop
morality, a system of learned attitudes about
social practices, institutions, and individual
behaviour used to evaluate situations as right
or wrong
 Piaget found young children’s ideas about
morality to be rigid and rule-bound
Moral Development
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Moral reasoning
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Kohlberg’s approach
Gilligan’s approach
Moral Development
 Kohlberg divides development into
three “levels”
 The central concept is justice,
morality as a balance of individual
rights and responsibilities
Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg’s
Theory
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Preconventional Level
 Punishment (avoid it) and obedience (for benefits)
 Instrumental relativism
Conventional Level
 Good boy-nice girl
 Society-maintaining
Postconventional Level
 Social contract
 Universal ethical principles
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
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Tends to overlook educational and
cultural influences.
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Some cultural differences not reflected in
this theory.
Moral reasoning is often inconsistent
across situations.
Moral reasoning is often unrelated to
moral behaviour.
Moral Reasoning: Gilligan’s
Theory
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Argued that men tend to base their
moral choices on abstract principles of
law and justice and women based moral
decisions on principles of compassion
and caring.
Gilligan’s Criticisms of
Kohlberg
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Sample of Kohlberg: ALL MALES