Transcript Ch.7 PP

Chapter 7: Human Memory
Page 1
Human Memory: Basic Questions
Encoding
How does information get into memory?
Storage
How is information maintained in memory?
Retrieval
How is information pulled back out of memory?
Page 2
Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory
Page 3
Encoding: Getting Information
Into Memory
• The role of attention
• Focusing awareness
• Selective attention = selection of input
– Filtering: early or late?
Page 4
Figure 7.3 Models of selective
attention
Page 5
Levels of Processing:
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
• Incoming information processed at different
levels
– Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes
• Encoding levels:
– Structural = shallow
– Phonemic = intermediate
– Semantic = deep
Page 6
Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing
theory
Page 7
Figure 7.5 Retention at three
levels of processing
Page 8
Enriching Encoding: Improving
Memory
• Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other
information at the time of encoding
– Thinking of examples
• Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to
represent words to be remembered
– Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory
• Self-Referent Encoding
– Making information personally meaningful
Page 9
Storage: Maintaining Information
in Memory
• Analogy: information storage in computers
~ information storage in human memory
• Information-processing theories
– Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
Page 10
Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and
Schiffrin model of memory storage
Page 11
Sensory Memory
• Brief preservation of information in original
sensory form
• Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
– George Sperling (1960)
• Classic experiment on visual sensory store
Page 12
Figure 7.8 Sperling’s (1960) study of
sensory memory
Page 13
Short Term Memory (STM)
• Limited capacity – magical number 7
plus or minus 2
– Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for
storage as a single unit
• Limited duration – about 20 seconds
without rehearsal
– Rehearsal – the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the information
Page 14
Figure 7.9 Peterson and Peterson’s
(1959) study of short-term memory
Page 15
Short-Term Memory as “Working
Memory”
• STM not limited to phonemic encoding
• Loss of information not only due to decay
• Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of
working memory
– Phonological rehearsal loop
– Visuospatial sketchpad
– Executive control system
Page 16
Long-Term Memory: Unlimited
Capacity
• Permanent storage?
– Flashbulb memories
– Recall through hypnosis
• Debate: are STM and LTM really different?
– Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding
– Decay vs. Interference based forgetting
Page 17
How is Knowledge Represented
and Organized in Memory?
•
•
•
•
Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
Schemas and Scripts
Semantic Networks
Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
Page 18
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out of Memory
• The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a
failure in retrieval
– Retrieval cues
• Recalling an event
– Context cues
• Reconstructing memories
– Misinformation effect
• Source monitoring, reality monitoring
Page 19
Forgetting: When Memory
Lapses
• Retention – the proportion of material retained
– Recall
– Recognition
– Relearning
• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
Page 20
Figure 7.16 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve
for nonsense syllables
Page 21
Figure 7.17 Recognition versus recall in
the measurement of retention
Page 22
Why Do We Forget?
• Ineffective Encoding
• Decay theory
• Interference theory
– Proactive
– Retroactive
Page 23
Figure 7.19 Retroactive and
proactive interference
Page 24
Figure 7.20 Estimates of the prevalence
of childhood physical and sexual abuse
Page 25
Retrieval Failure
• Encoding Specificity
• Transfer-Appropriate Processing
• Repression
– Authenticity of repressed memories?
– Memory illusions
– Controversy
Page 26
Figure 7.22 The prevalence of false memories
observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)
Page 27
The Physiology of Memory
• Biochemistry
– Alteration in synaptic transmission
• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
• Protein synthesis
• Neural circuitry
– Localized neural circuits
• Reusable pathways in the brain
• Long-term potentiation
Page 28
The Physiology of Memory
• Anatomy
– Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
• Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,
• Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
Page 29
Figure 7.23 The anatomy of
memory
Page 30
Figure 7.25 Retrograde versus
anterograde amnesia
Page 31
Are There Multiple Memory
Systems?
• Declarative vs. Procedural
• Semantic vs. Episodic
• Prospective vs. Retrospective
Page 32
Figure 7.26 Theories of
independent memory systems
Page 33
Improving Everyday Memory
• Engage in adequate rehearsal
• Distribute practice and minimize
interference
• Emphasize deep processing and transferappropriate processing
• Organize information
• Use verbal mnemonics
• Use visual mnemonics
Page 34