Transcript 09Memory - MrsVangelista.com

Memory
The persistence of learning over time through
the storage and retrieval of information.
Information Processing Model:
The Brain works like a
computer.
 Encodes
 Packages info
 Stores
 Safely keeps info for later use
 Retrieves
 Brings info back into the conscious mind
Do you think that the brain works like a
computer? How is remembering
something like opening a file on a
computer?
Three Types of Memory
In humans, information processing occurs
in three systems: sensory memory,
short-term memory, Long term
memory.
Which part of
memory is
malfunctioning in
Dory’s case?
Let’s Examine our own
thought process
Get out a blank piece of
paper and write down all
responses that come to
mind in the order that they
occur
Your Task: Name the seven
dwarfs from “Snow
White”
How difficult was this task?
Was it Easy or Hard
Memory is the persistence of learning over
time
What are some factors that made it easy or
hard?
To name the 7 dwarfs we must
Get the info into our brain (encoding)
Retain it over time (storage)
Get it back out (retrieval)
Was it easy or hard?
 It depends on several
things….
 If you like Disney
movies?
 When was the last
time you have seen
the movie?
 Are people around
you being loud pain in
the butts so you
cannot concentrate?
Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 9
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Memory
 Memory
 persistence of learning over time
via the storage and retrieval of
information
 Flashbulb Memory
 a clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment
or event
Memory
 Memory as Information Processing
 similar to a computer
 write to file
 save to disk
 read from disk
 Encoding
 the processing of information into the
memory system
 i.e., extracting meaning
Memory
 Storage
 the retention of encoded information
over time
 Retrieval
 process of getting information out of
memory
Memory
 Sensory Memory
 the immediate, initial recording of
sensory information in the memory
system
 Working Memory
 focuses more on the processing of
briefly stored information
Memory
 Short-Term Memory
 activated memory that holds a few
items briefly
 look up a phone number, then quickly
dial before the information is forgotten
 Long-Term Memory
 the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
A Simplified Memory
Model
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Encoding
Long-term
memory
Retrieving
Encoding: Getting
Information In
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic
Encoding
 Automatic Processing
 unconscious encoding of incidental
information
 space
 time
 frequency
 well-learned information
 word meanings
 we can learn automatic processing
 reading backwards
Encoding
 Effortful Processing
 requires attention and conscious
effort
 Rehearsal
 conscious repetition of information
 to maintain it in consciousness
 to encode it for storage
Encoding
 Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
 TUV ZOF GEK WAV
 the more times practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions to relearn on
Day 2
 Spacing Effect
 distributed practice yields better longterm retention than massed practice
Encoding
Time in
minutes
taken to
relearn
list on
day 2
20
15
10
5
0
8
16
24
32
42
53
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
64
Encoding: Serial Position
Effect
Percent
age of
words
recalled
90
80
Serial Position
Effect--tendency
to recall best
the last items in
a list
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
Position of
word in list
9
10 11 12
What Do We Encode?
 Semantic Encoding
 encoding of meaning
 including meaning of words
 Acoustic Encoding
 encoding of sound
 especially sound of words
 Visual Encoding
 encoding of picture images
Encoding
Encoding
 Imagery
 mental pictures
 a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic
encoding
 Mnemonics
 memory aids
 especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
Encoding
 Chunking
 organizing items into familiar, manageable
units
 like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
 often occurs automatically
 use of acronyms
 HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
 ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding: Chunking
 Organized information is more easily recalled
Encoding
 Hierarchies
 complex information broken down into broad concepts and
further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Chunks
Organization
Hierarchies
Storage:
Retaining Information
 Iconic Memory
 a momentary sensory memory of visual
stimuli
 a photographic or picture image memory
lasting no more that a few tenths of a
second
 Echoic Memory
 momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli
Storage:
Short-Term Memory
Percentage
90
who recalled
consonants 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
 Short-Term
Memory
3
6
9
12
15
18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
 limited in
duration and
capacity
 “magical”
number 7+/-2
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 How does storage work?
 Karl Lashley (1950)
 rats learn maze
 lesion cortex
 test memory
 Synaptic changes
 Long-term Potentiation
 increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation
 Strong emotions make for stronger memories
 some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 Amnesia--the loss of memory
 Explicit Memory
 memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
 also called declarative memory
 hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that
helps process explicit memories for storage
 Implicit Memory
 retention independent of conscious recollection
 also called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term
Memory Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositionsclassical and
operant
conditioning
effects
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Retrieval: Getting
Information Out
 Recall
 measure of memory in which the
person must retrieve information
learned earlier
 as on a fill-in-the blank test
 Recognition
 Measure of memory in which the
person has only to identify items
previously learned
 as on a multiple-choice test
Retrieval
 Relearning
 memory measure that assesses
the amount of time saved when
learning material a second time
 Priming
 activation, often unconsciously,
of particular associations in
memory
Retrieval Cues
Percentage of
words recalled
40
30
20
10
0
Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts for
hearing and recall
Water/
water
Land/
land
Same contexts for
hearing and recall
Retrieval Cues
 Deja Vu (French)--already seen
 cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
 "I've experienced this before."
 Mood-congruent Memory
 tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood
 memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
 State-dependent Memory
 what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
state
Retrieval Cues
 After learning to move
a mobile by kicking,
infants had their
learning reactivated
most strongly when
retested in the same
rather than a different
context (Butler &
Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Reasons for Forgetting
Encoding failure
Not storing information in the first place
Decay
Fading of memory traces in neurons
Especially a problem with sensory memories and STM
Cue-dependent
“tip of the tongue” Forgetting may be a result
from retrieval failure rather than encoding or
storage
If you have the right trigger, you will remember
Forgetting
 Forgetting as encoding failure
 Information never enters the long-term
memory
Attention
External
events
Short- Encoding
Sensory
term
memory Encoding
memory
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting
Longterm
memory
Forgetting
 Forgetting as
encoding failure
 Which penny is the
real thing?
Forgetting
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning
 Ebbinghaus
forgetting
curve over
30 days-initially
rapid, then
levels off
with time
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12345
10
15
20
25
Time in days since learning list
30
Forgetting
 The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Percentage of 100%
original
90
vocabulary
80
retained
Retention
drops,
70
then levels off
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 3 5
9½
14½
25
35½
49½
Time in years after completion of Spanish course
Retrieval
 Forgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term
memory
Attention
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Encoding
Short-term
Long-term
memory
Retrieval memory
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Forgetting as
Interference
 Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
 Proactive (forward acting) Interference
 disruptive effect of prior learning on recall
of new information
 Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
 disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
Forgetting as
Interference
Forgetting
 Retroactive Interference
Percentage
of syllables
recalled
90%
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
80
After sleep
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
After remaining awake
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
8
Forgetting
 Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
 As we process
information,
we filter, alter,
or lose much
of it
ForgettingInterference
 Motivated Forgetting
 people unknowingly revise memories
 Repression
 defense mechanism that banishes from
consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories
Memory Construction
 We filter information and fill in missing
pieces
 Misinformation Effect
 incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event
 Source Amnesia
 attributing to the wrong source an event
that we experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction
Depiction of actual accident
 Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
memories when
questioned
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Memory Construction
 Memories of Abuse
 Repressed or Constructed?
 Child sexual abuse does occur
 Some adults do actually forget such episodes
 False Memory Syndrome
 condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of traumatic experience
 sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory Construction
 Most people can agree on the following:
Injustice happens
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs
are especially unreliable
 Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable
 Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

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

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Improve Your Memory
 Study repeatedly to boost recall
 Spend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the material
 Make material personally meaningful
 Use mnemonic devices
 associate with peg words--something
already stored
 make up story
 chunk--acronyms
Improve Your Memory
 Activate retrieval cues--mentally
recreate situation and mood
 Recall events while they are fresh-before you encounter misinformation
 Minimize interference
 Test your own knowledge
 rehearse
 determine what you do not yet
know
Reconstructive memory
The process of piecing together memories by
fitting them to a meaningful plan or
organization.
Accounts for much of the inaccuracy of our
recollections. We fill in gaps with
assumptions because we are uncomfortable
with the gaps. Once we've done this,
distinguishing what actually happened from
what we filled in is almost impossible.
A TWA Boeing 747 had just taken off from Miami International
Airport for Los Angeles when a passenger near the rear of the
aircraft announced that the plane was being taken over by the
People's Revolutionary Army for the liberation of the oppressed.
The hijacker then held a 357 magnum to the head of Jack
Swanson, a flight attendant, and forced him to open the cockpit
door. There, the hijacker confronted the pilot, Jane Randall, and
ordered her to change the course for Cuba. The pilot radioed
the Miami Air Traffic Control Center to report the situation but
then suddenly hurled the microphone at the hijacker, who fell
backward through the open cockpit door and onto the floor,
where angry passengers took over from there. The plane landed
in Miami a few minutes later and the hijacker was arrested.
telling of the story are usually quite
predictable and follow some basic
principles of constructive memory.
 describe how the story changed with the retelling
 First, the story will get progressively shorter as
some non-distinctive details -- the type of
airplane, the name of the revolutionary group,
and sometimes, the flight's origin and destination
-- are left out. This is sometimes referred to as
"leveling." (Particularly distinctive details, such as
the calibre of the gun, and, especially for female
students, the gender of the pilot, are often
retained; this is sometimes referred to as
"sharpening.")
Video Questions
Living with Amnesia