Transcript MEMORY - Focus on Diversity

MEMORY
Outline
• Remembering
– Memory Stages
– The content of Long-term memory
– Reliably of Long-term memory
• Forgetting
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Theories about why we forget
Measuring what we can remember
Memory loss
Memory problems and medical conditions
• Powering up your memory
Memory
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Practically all of our daily activities (talking, understanding, reading,
socializing) depend on our capacity to receive and stored information from
our environment.
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Allows us to retrieve events from the distant past or from moments ago.
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Enables us to learn new skills and to form habits.
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Without the ability to access past experiences or information, we would be
unable to comprehend language, recognize our friends and family
members, find our way home, or even tie a shoe.
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Life would be a series of disconnected experiences, each one new and
unfamiliar.
Memory
• Processes by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
– Encoding:
• the initial perception and registration of information.
– Storage:
• the retention of encoded information over time.
– Retrieval:
• the processes involved in using stored information.
• Whenever we successfully recall a prior experience, we must have
encoded, stored, and retrieved information about the experience.
The Basic Process of Memory
InformationEncodingStorageRetrival
Memory Encoding
• We encode information in different ways:
– Acoustically (coded by sound)
– Visually (coded by mental pictures)
– Semantically (coded by meaning)
Memory Storage
Three-stage model
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Sensory Memory
– Retains an exact copy of what is seen (iconic) or heard (echoic).
– It only lasts for a few seconds.
– Information is lost or transferred to STM.
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Short-Term Memory (STM)
– Store 7 + or – 2 bits of information for about 20-30 sec.
– Information need to be rehearsed.
– Information is transferred to LTM or will be lost.
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Long-Term Memory (LTM)
– Relatively permanent storage.
– Information is stored on the basis of meaning and importance.
Memory Storage Process
• After entering sensory memory, a limited amount
of information is transferred into short-term
memory.
• Within STM, there are three basic operations:
– Iconic memory - The ability to hold visual images.
– Acoustic memory - The ability to hold sounds.
– Working memory - An active process to keep
information until it is put to use (a phone number you'll
repeat to yourself until you can dial it on the phone).
Memory Retrieval
• Some memories are retrieved effortless
but others depend on the availability of:
– Retrieval Cues.
• Cues associated with the original learning that
facilitate the retrieval of memories.
• Context-dependent memory effect
– Tendency for information to be better recalled
in the same context in which it was originally
learned.
Information Processing Model
Content of LTM
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Procedural Memory
– Memory of how to do things.
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Declarative Memory or Explicit Memory
– Memory of fact and personal information.
– Require conscious effort to bring it back to mind.
– Examples:
• We know that there are 50 States
• We know that we attend MSC
– Divide into:
• Semantic Memory (memory of facts)
• Episodic Memory (memory of personal experiences)
– Can be:
• Retrospective (memory of past experience)
• Prospective (remembering to do something in the future)
Content of LTM
LTM: Preserving the Past
• Consolidation
– Process of converting STM into LTM
• Elaborative Rehearsal
– Process of transferring information from STM
to LTM by consciously focusing on the
meaning if the information.
Semantic Network Model
• Information in LTM is stored in interrelated networks of
schemas.
• These form intricate knowledge structures.
• Related schemas are linked together, and information
that activates one schema also activates others that are
closely linked.
• This is how we recall relevant knowledge when similar
information is presented.
Characteristics of LTM
• LTM provides the framework to which we attach
new knowledge.
• The knowledge we store in LTM affects our
perceptions of the world, and influences what
information in the environment we attend to.
• Our expectations regarding a particular
experience influence how we interpret it. This is
how we develop bias.
Reliability of LTM
• Constructionist Theory
– Memory is not a replica of the past, but a
reconstruction of the past.
• Memory Schema
– Organized knowledge such as a set of beliefs
that reflects our past experiences and
expectations of the future.
Confabulations
• Also known as False Memory
• Rely on Reconstruction Theory
– Confusion of imagination with memory.
– Confusion of true memories with false
memories.
Flashbulb Memories
• Memories of extremely stressful or
emotionally arousing personal or historical
events.
• May leave lasting and vivid memories.
• May have inaccuracies or distortions.
Emotions and Memory
• PTSD : Memories that won’t go away
• Depression: Recall mainly negative events
• Anxiety: negatively affect memory in general
• Stress: negatively affect memory in general
Theories of Forgetting
• Decay Theory
– Gradual fading of memories as a function of time.
• Interference Theory
– Disruption of memory caused by interference of previously learned
material or newly learned material.
• Retrieval Theory
– Failure to access material stored in memory because of encoding failure
or lack of retrieval cues.
• Repression Theory
– Motivated forgetting of anxiety-provoking material.
Measuring Memory
• Recall Tasks
– Test of the ability to reproduce information held in
memory with only minimal cues available
• Remembering the phone number of a friend
• Remembering the names of the 50 States
• Recognition Tasks
– Test of ability to recognize material held in memory
• Recognizing the correct answer in a multiple choice test
Amnesia:
The partial or complete loss of memory due to
physiological or psychological causes
• Retrograde Amnesia
– Lost of memory of past events
• For example:
– Unable to remember details of car accident.
• Anterogade Amnesia
– Loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new
memories.
• Usually due to brain disorder person is unable to retain new
information.
Psychogenic Amnesia
• Results from a psychological cause as opposed
to direct damage to the brain:
– Dissociative Amnesia
• inability to recall information, usually about stressful or
traumatic events, such as a violent attack or rape.
– Fuge/Dissociative Fugue
• caused by psychological trauma and is usually temporary
– Lacunar Amnesia
• loss of memory about one specific event
– Childhood Amnesia/Infantile Amnesia
• inability to remember events from one's own childhood
Medical Conditions and Memory Problems
• Hormonal imbalances
– Thyroid disease
– Cushing disease (overproduction of hormones by the
adrenal gland)
• Infectious diseases
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AIDS
Neurosyphilis
Chronic meningitis
Tuberculosis
Medical Conditions and Memory Problems
• Vitamin deficiencies (vitamin B1)
– Korsakoff’s Syndrome due to:
• Chronic alcoholism
• Severe malnutrition
• Traumatic Brain Injury/Brain Trauma
• Neuro-degenerative Diseases
– Alzheimer's Disease
– Parkinson's Disease
– Dementia
Medical Conditions and Memory Problems
• Tumors of the frontal or temporal lobe of
the cerebral cortex
• Subdural hematoma (blood between the
skull and the brain)
• Hydrocephalia (excess fluid in the brain)
Powering up your Memory
• Mnemonics (devises to improve memory)
– Chunking
– Acronyms
– Rhymes
– Visual imagery
• Associating information with striking visual images.
– Link system
– Method of Loci
Practice: Chunking
CNNCIAJFKIBMDNA
CNN CIA JFK IBM DNA
Mnemonic: Acronyms
• Rainbow Colors: Roy G. Biv
– Red
– Orange
– Yellow
– Green
– Blue
– Indigo
– Violet
Mnemonic: Acronyms
• Depression Symptoms: BAD CRISES
Behavioral change (slowing down or agitation)
Appetite change (weight loss or weight gain)
Depressed look (looking down)
Concentration decrease
Ruminations (constant negative thoughts & hopelessness)
Interest (reduced interest in what is normally pleasurable)
Sleep change (insomnia or hypersomnia)
Energy change (fatigue)
Suicidal ideations
Mnemonic: Rhymes
Thirty days has November,
April, June, and September,
Of twenty-eight only but one,
And all the remaining thirty-one.
Mnemonic: Link System
– Remembering a list based by creating associations
between elements of that list.
– Remembering the following grocery list:
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Milk: Picture a stream of milk being fired from a water gun
Eggs: Picture an egg wearing shoes
Butter: Picture sticks of butter growing from a tree
Bread: Picture a door made from bread
Catsup: Picture bees flying from a catsup bottle
Toilet paper: Imagine a roll of TP with angel wings
Soap: Picture a bar of soap on a plate
Batteries: Picture a mechanical hen that runs on batteries
Mnemonic: Method of Loci
(Journey method)
– Use to remember long list of items
– Remembering based on physical locations
– Familiar large places
– Should be well lit
– Should be set out in particular order
– The more architectural elaboration the better
– You can group items in a particular place
Preserving INFORMATION
• Repetition or rehearsal
• Organization
– headings and subheadings
– use of outlines to organize information
• Meaningfulness
– easier to remember things that are relevant to us
• Imagery
– visualizing or making a mental picture of the information
Strategies to Improve your Memory
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Tell yourself, “pay attention; focus”
Take notes
Highlight the information that seems most important
Organize the information into natural groups
Create association links to information that you already know
Generate your own examples
Create visual images of the new information
Create diagrams or flow charts of the information
Think about how you might apply this information
Repeat the information
Summarize and review the information
Speak the information out loud
Tell or explain it to some other person
Test yourself on the information
Take in reasonably small amounts of information at a time